Media literacy 101: Case Studies in Manipulation - Covid19 Infodemic Conspiracy Theories

What This Is

The Covid-19 infodemic and conspiracy theories refer to the overwhelming amount of misinformation and disinformation surrounding the pandemic, which has led to confusion, mistrust, and harm. This phenomenon is not just a result of individual gullibility but is instead a deliberate attempt by various actors to shape public opinion and undermine scientific consensus. For example, the Russian Internet Research Agency (IRA) created and disseminated fake social media accounts and posts that spread conspiracy theories about the pandemic, vaccines, and government responses, ultimately influencing public opinion and policy decisions.

Key Theories & Models

• Propaganda Model (Herman & Chomsky): Five filters (ownership, funding, sourcing, flak, anti-communism/ideology) shape news into pro-establishment narratives – explains why some stories are systematically marginalised.
• Inoculation Theory (McGuire, Compton): Pre-exposing people to weakened versions of misinformation can build resistance – basis for pre-bunking games like “Bad News”.
• Agenda-Setting Theory (McCombs & Shaw): Media can influence public opinion by deciding what issues to cover and how to frame them – explains why some topics receive more attention than others.
• Framing Theory (Goffman): The way information is presented can influence public perception and opinion – used by politicians and advertisers to shape public opinion.
• Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner): People's sense of identity and belonging can influence their perception of information and their willingness to accept or reject it – explains why conspiracy theories often appeal to people's sense of group identity.
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger): People tend to avoid information that challenges their existing beliefs and attitudes – explains why people often reject information that contradicts their pre-existing views.
• The Spiral of Silence (Noelle-Neumann): People are less likely to express opinions that contradict the majority view – explains why people may be reluctant to speak out against misinformation.
• The Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo): People's attitudes and opinions are influenced by the amount of cognitive effort they put into processing information – explains why people may be more susceptible to misinformation if they are not motivated to critically evaluate it.
• The Source Credibility Model (Holvland & Weiss): People's attitudes and opinions are influenced by the perceived credibility of the source – explains why people may be more likely to accept information from a trusted source.

Step-by-Step Application

1. Identify the source: Determine who is behind the information and their potential motivations and biases.
2. Evaluate the evidence: Assess the quality and reliability of the evidence presented, looking for corroboration from multiple sources.
3. Check for logical fallacies: Identify common logical fallacies, such as ad hominem attacks, straw man arguments, and false dichotomies.
4. Consider the context: Take into account the broader social, cultural, and historical context in which the information is being presented.
5. Look for red flags: Be aware of common indicators of misinformation, such as sensational language, emotional appeals, and lack of transparency.
6. Use fact-checking resources: Consult reputable fact-checking websites and organizations to verify the accuracy of the information.

Common Misconceptions

• Misconception: Propaganda is just lies.
• Correction: Propaganda is a deliberate attempt to shape public opinion and influence behavior, often using subtle and sophisticated techniques.
• Misconception: Smart people can't be fooled.
• Correction: Anyone can be susceptible to misinformation, regardless of their intelligence or education level.
• Misconception: The news is completely objective.
• Correction: All news is subjective, and journalists and media outlets have their own biases and agendas.
• Misconception: Fact-checking always works.
• Correction: Fact-checking is not foolproof, and even reputable fact-checking organizations can make mistakes.

Exam / Case Interview Tips

• Be aware of common question patterns: Examiners may ask you to identify propaganda techniques, evaluate the credibility of sources, or analyze the impact of misinformation on public opinion.
• Know the key theories and models: Be familiar with the propaganda model, agenda-setting theory, framing theory, and other relevant concepts.
• Use concrete examples: Use real-world examples to illustrate your points and demonstrate your understanding of the concepts.
• Avoid jargon: Use plain language to explain complex concepts and avoid using technical terms that may be unfamiliar to non-experts.

Quick Practice Scenario

A news outlet repeatedly pairs the word "crisis" with images of migrants. What framing technique is being used and what is its likely effect?

Answer: The news outlet is using the frame of crisis, which is a technique used to create a sense of urgency and alarm. This framing technique is likely to influence public opinion by creating a negative association with migrants and reinforcing existing biases.

Last-Minute Cram Sheet

• Propaganda: A deliberate attempt to shape public opinion and influence behavior.
• Infodemic: An overwhelming amount of misinformation and disinformation.
• Conspiracy theory: A false or misleading explanation for a phenomenon or event.
• Agenda-setting theory: The media can influence public opinion by deciding what issues to cover and how to frame them.
• Framing theory: The way information is presented can influence public perception and opinion.
• Social identity theory: People's sense of identity and belonging can influence their perception of information and their willingness to accept or reject it.
• Cognitive dissonance theory: People tend to avoid information that challenges their existing beliefs and attitudes.
• The spiral of silence: People are less likely to express opinions that contradict the majority view.
• The elaboration likelihood model: People's attitudes and opinions are influenced by the amount of cognitive effort they put into processing information.
• The source credibility model: People's attitudes and opinions are influenced by the perceived credibility of the source.
• Edward Bernays: A pioneer of modern propaganda and public relations.
• Noam Chomsky: A critic of mainstream media and advocate for media literacy.
• Walter Lippmann: A journalist and philosopher who wrote about the role of media in shaping public opinion.
• Jacques Ellul: A philosopher who wrote about the power of propaganda and the importance of media literacy.
• Cambridge Analytica: A data analytics firm that used propaganda and disinformation to influence the 2016 US presidential election.
• Russian Internet Research Agency: A Russian troll farm that spread disinformation and propaganda on social media during the 2016 US presidential election.