Media literacy 101: Digital and Social Media Manipulation - Deepfakes Cheapfakes Shallowfakes

What This Is

Deepfakes & Cheapfakes (Shallowfakes) refer to manipulated audio, video, or image content that can deceive people into believing false information. This phenomenon matters because it allows propagandists to bypass fact-checking and create convincing, yet fabricated, narratives that can influence public opinion and sway elections. For instance, during the 2016 US presidential election, a deepfake video of Nancy Pelosi was created to make her appear drunk and incoherent, further polarizing the electorate.

Key Theories & Models

• Propaganda Model (Herman & Chomsky): Five filters (ownership, funding, sourcing, flak, anti-communism/ideology) shape news into pro-establishment narratives – explains why some stories are systematically marginalised.
• Inoculation Theory (McGuire, Compton): Pre-exposing people to weakened versions of misinformation can build resistance – basis for pre-bunking games like “Bad News”.
• Agenda-Setting Theory (McCombs & Shaw): Media can influence what issues people think about and how they think about them – explains why certain topics dominate the news cycle.
• Framing Theory (Goffman): The way information is presented can influence how people think about an issue – used in campaigns to shape public opinion.
• Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner): People define themselves in relation to groups and will often conform to group norms – used in propaganda to create a sense of shared identity.
• Cultivation Theory (Gerbner): Media can shape people's perceptions of reality – used in propaganda to create a distorted view of the world.
• The Spiral of Silence (Noelle-Neumann): People are less likely to express opinions that go against the majority – used in propaganda to create a sense of consensus.
• The Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo): People process information in one of two ways: centrally (thinking) or peripherally (emotionally) – used in propaganda to create emotional connections.
• The Source Credibility Model (Holvland, Janis, & Kelley): People are more likely to accept information from credible sources – used in propaganda to create fake experts.

Step-by-Step Application

1. Identify the source: Determine who created the content and their potential motivations.
2. Check for corroboration: Verify the information through multiple, credible sources.
3. Look for red flags: Be aware of language, imagery, and other tactics that may be used to manipulate.
4. Use reverse image search: Verify the authenticity of images and videos.
5. Consult fact-checking websites: Use reputable sources to verify the accuracy of information.
6. Analyze the framing: Consider how the information is presented and what message it conveys.

Common Misconceptions

• Misconception: Propaganda is just lies.
• Correction: Propaganda can be subtle and use half-truths or omission of information to create a distorted view of reality.
• Example: The tobacco industry's campaign to downplay the risks of smoking.
• Misconception: Smart people can't be fooled.
• Correction: Anyone can be susceptible to propaganda, regardless of intelligence or education.
• Example: The success of the Cambridge Analytica campaign in manipulating Facebook users.
• Misconception: The news is completely objective.
• Correction: All news is filtered through some level of bias or agenda.
• Example: The Propaganda Model's five filters.
• Misconception: Fact-checking always works.
• Correction: Fact-checking is not foolproof and can be influenced by biases or limitations.
• Example: The failure of fact-checking to prevent the spread of misinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Exam / Case Interview Tips

• Disinformation vs misinformation: Disinformation is intentionally false information, while misinformation is unintentionally false information.
• Framing vs agenda-setting: Framing refers to the way information is presented, while agenda-setting refers to the issues that are prioritized.
• Astroturfing vs grassroots: Astroturfing is the creation of a fake grassroots movement, while a genuine grassroots movement is a spontaneous, organic movement.
• Common question patterns: Be prepared to analyze propaganda campaigns, identify biases, and evaluate the credibility of sources.

Quick Practice Scenario

A news outlet repeatedly pairs the word 'crisis' with images of migrants. What framing technique is being used and what is its likely effect?

Answer: The news outlet is using fear-mongering to create a sense of urgency and anxiety around the issue of migration. This is likely to influence public opinion and create a sense of consensus around a particular policy solution.

Last-Minute Cram Sheet

• Deepfakes & Cheapfakes refer to manipulated audio, video, or image content.
• Propaganda can be subtle and use half-truths or omission of information.
• Anyone can be susceptible to propaganda, regardless of intelligence or education.
• The news is filtered through some level of bias or agenda.
• Fact-checking is not foolproof and can be influenced by biases or limitations.
• Disinformation is intentionally false information, while misinformation is unintentionally false information.
• Framing refers to the way information is presented, while agenda-setting refers to the issues that are prioritized.
• Astroturfing is the creation of a fake grassroots movement, while a genuine grassroots movement is a spontaneous, organic movement.
• Propaganda is not just for totalitarian regimes – democracies use it too; Bernays called it 'engineering consent'.
• The Spiral of Silence can create a sense of consensus around a particular issue or policy.
• The Elaboration Likelihood Model explains how people process information in one of two ways: centrally (thinking) or peripherally (emotionally).