Media literacy 101: Foundations of Propaganda - Herman Chomskys Propaganda Model

What This Is

Herman & Chomsky's Propaganda Model explains how information is shaped and controlled by powerful interests. This model matters because it reveals how some stories are systematically marginalised, and how the public is misled into supporting the status quo. For example, during the 1991 Gulf War, the US government and media outlets used the Propaganda Model to create a pro-war narrative, downplaying civilian casualties and exaggerating Iraqi atrocities.

Key Theories & Models

• Propaganda Model (Herman & Chomsky): Five filters (ownership, funding, sourcing, flak, anti-communism/ideology) shape news into pro-establishment narratives.
• Inoculation Theory (McGuire, Compton): Pre-exposing people to weakened versions of misinformation can build resistance.
• Agenda-Setting Theory (McCombs & Shaw): The media sets the public agenda by deciding which issues to cover and how to frame them.
• Framing Theory (Goffman): The way information is presented influences how people think and feel about an issue.
• Manufacturing Consent (Herman & Chomsky): The media and other powerful institutions create a consensus on key issues, often by suppressing dissenting voices.
• The Spiral of Silence (Noelle-Neumann): People are less likely to express opinions that contradict the dominant view, creating a self-reinforcing cycle of silence.
• The Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo): People are more likely to be influenced by persuasive messages when they are motivated and able to think critically.
• The Source Credibility Model (Holvand & Weiss): People are more likely to accept information from credible sources, even if the information is false.
• The Two-Step Flow of Communication (Katz & Lazarsfeld): Information is filtered through opinion leaders before reaching the general public.
• The Cultivation Theory (Gerbner): Repeated exposure to media messages can shape people's perceptions of reality.

Step-by-Step Application

1. Identify the Propaganda Model filters: Analyze a news story or advertisement to see which filters are being used to shape the narrative.
2. Look for framing techniques: Identify how the information is being presented, and how it influences the audience's thoughts and feelings.
3. Check for source credibility: Evaluate the credibility of the source, and consider whether it is influencing the audience's perception of the information.
4. Consider the agenda: Think about which issues are being covered, and which are being ignored, and how this influences the public agenda.
5. Evaluate the evidence: Assess the quality of the evidence being presented, and consider whether it supports the claims being made.
6. Think critically about the message: Consider the motivations behind the message, and whether it is trying to persuade or manipulate the audience.

Common Misconceptions

• Misconception: "Propaganda is just lies."
• Correction: Propaganda can be subtle and manipulative, using techniques like framing and agenda-setting to influence people's thoughts and feelings.
• Example: The tobacco industry's campaign to downplay the health risks of smoking is an example of propaganda that used subtle and manipulative techniques to influence public opinion.
• Misconception: "Smart people can't be fooled."
• Correction: Anyone can be influenced by propaganda, regardless of their intelligence or education level.
• Example: The Cambridge Analytica scandal showed how even sophisticated and educated individuals can be influenced by targeted propaganda.
• Misconception: "The news is completely objective."
• Correction: The news is often shaped by powerful interests and biases, and can be influenced by the Propaganda Model filters.
• Example: The 2003 invasion of Iraq was widely covered by the media, but many outlets failed to critically examine the evidence and instead presented a pro-war narrative.
• Misconception: "Fact-checking always works."
• Correction: Fact-checking can be flawed and biased, and may not always catch all errors or misinformation.
• Example: The 2016 US presidential election saw numerous instances of fact-checking failures, which contributed to the spread of misinformation.

Exam / Case Interview Tips

• Be prepared to explain the Propaganda Model: Understand the five filters and how they shape news and information.
• Identify framing techniques: Be able to recognize how information is being presented, and how it influences the audience's thoughts and feelings.
• Consider the agenda: Think about which issues are being covered, and which are being ignored, and how this influences the public agenda.
• Distinguish between disinformation and misinformation: Disinformation is intentional and malicious, while misinformation is unintentional and often the result of flawed fact-checking.
• Be aware of the Elaboration Likelihood Model: Understand how people are more likely to be influenced by persuasive messages when they are motivated and able to think critically.

Quick Practice Scenario

A news outlet repeatedly pairs the word "crisis" with images of migrants. What framing technique is being used and what is its likely effect?

Answer: The framing technique being used is the "crisis frame," which creates a sense of urgency and danger. This is likely to influence the audience's thoughts and feelings, making them more sympathetic to restrictive immigration policies.

Last-Minute Cram Sheet

• Propaganda Model: A framework for understanding how information is shaped and controlled by powerful interests.
• Herman & Chomsky: Developed the Propaganda Model and argued that the media serves as a tool of the powerful.
• Bernays: A pioneer of modern propaganda, who argued that the public can be manipulated through subtle and manipulative techniques.
• Lippmann: A media critic who argued that the public is often misled by the media and that critical thinking is essential for navigating complex issues.
• Ellul: A philosopher who argued that propaganda is a fundamental aspect of modern society and that it is often used to manipulate and control people.
• Cambridge Analytica: A scandal that showed how targeted propaganda can influence public opinion and shape election outcomes.
• Russian Internet Research Agency: A troll farm that used social media to spread misinformation and influence public opinion during the 2016 US presidential election.
• Tobacco industry disinformation: A campaign to downplay the health risks of smoking, which used subtle and manipulative techniques to influence public opinion.
• Climate denial: A campaign to downplay the risks of climate change, which used propaganda techniques to influence public opinion and delay action.
• Viral misinformation during COVID-19: A wave of misinformation and disinformation that spread rapidly on social media during the pandemic.