UPSC GS Paper I: Medieval History, Vijayanagara Empire, Economy, Art, Krishnadevaraya

Must?Know

• Vijayanagara Empire founded in 1336 CE by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I under the guidance of Vidyaranya, a Sringeri sage, in response to the chaos caused by Delhi Sultanate invasions in South India.
• Capital city of Vijayanagara (modern Hampi, Karnataka) located on the banks of the Tungabhadra River, chosen for strategic and religious significance.
• Empire reached its zenith under Krishnadevaraya (r. 1509–1529), who belonged to the Tuluva dynasty, the third dynasty after Sangama and Saluva.
• Krishnadevaraya’s military victories included the defeat of the Gajapati ruler Prataparudra Deva of Odisha, securing the eastern coast up to the Krishna River.
• He defeated the Sultan of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah, in the Battle of Diwani (1512), regaining control over the Raichur Doab.
• Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes visited Vijayanagara during Krishnadevaraya’s reign (1520–1522) and described the empire as prosperous with well-fortified cities and bustling markets.
• Persian ambassador Abdur Razzaq visited the court of Deva Raya II (1422–1446) and recorded details of administration, noting the presence of a powerful navy and extensive trade networks.
• The empire’s economy was agrarian but heavily monetized, with widespread use of gold varaha, silver pagoda, and copper coins minted by the state.
• Land revenue formed the backbone of state income, assessed at one-fourth to one-sixth of the produce depending on fertility and irrigation.
• Irrigation infrastructure included tanks, wells, and canals; the Kamalapuram tank and Hiriya canal were major projects under Krishnadevaraya.
• Trade was extensive: horses imported from Arabia and Persia via Goa and Dabhol; exports included spices, textiles, and precious stones to Southeast Asia, West Asia, and Europe.
• Major ports included Bhatkal, Honnavar, and Mangalore on the west coast; Pulicat and Nagapattinam on the east coast.
• Guilds (e.g., Ayyavole and Manigramam) played a key role in long-distance trade and temple donations, often operating under royal patronage.
• Temples functioned as economic hubs, managing land, trade, and credit; the Virupaksha Temple received land grants and controlled local markets.
• Krishnadevaraya patronized Telugu literature; his court included the Ashtadiggajas, eight celebrated poets including Allasani Peddana and Nandi Thimmana.
• He authored Amuktamalyada in Telugu, a treatise on statecraft and devotion, narrating the story of Andal’s devotion to Lord Vishnu.
• Architecture under Vijayanagara combined Dravidian style with Indo-Islamic elements; hallmark features include massive gopurams, pillared halls (kalyanamandapa), and royal enclosures (mahamandapa).
• Vittala Temple in Hampi, built during the reign of Devaraya II, is famous for its stone chariot and musical pillars, showcasing advanced acoustics and craftsmanship.
• Hazara Rama Temple, the royal chapel of the kings, contains bas-relief panels depicting scenes from the Ramayana, used for private worship.
• Virupaksha Temple, dedicated to Shiva, predates the empire and remained a functional pilgrimage site throughout its history.
• The empire followed a decentralized administrative system with provinces (rajyas or mandalams) governed by royal princes or trusted nobles (nayakas).
• Nayankara system involved assignment of land to military chiefs (nayakas) in return for maintaining troops; this later contributed to fragmentation after the empire’s decline.
• Battle of Talikota (1565) resulted in the defeat of Ramaraja (regent of Sadasiva Raya) by the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, and Golconda; capital was sacked and never fully recovered.
• Post-1565, the empire shifted to Penukonda and later Chandragiri, with the Aravidu dynasty continuing nominal rule until the 1670s.

Difficulty Level

Intermediate – requires integration of political, economic, and cultural aspects with specific rulers, foreign accounts, and architectural details frequently tested in UPSC.

Common UPSC Traps

Trap: Krishnadevaraya was the founder of the Vijayanagara Empire – Fact: Harihara I and Bukka Raya I founded the empire in 1336; Krishnadevaraya ruled in the 16th century under the Tuluva dynasty.
Trap: The empire was primarily Islamic-influenced in culture – Fact: While it adopted some administrative and military practices from Deccan sultanates, Vijayanagara promoted Hindu religion, Sanskrit, and South Indian temple traditions.
Trap: The capital was moved to Hampi after the Battle of Talikota – Fact: Hampi was the original capital; after 1565, the capital was shifted away from Hampi to Penukonda due to destruction.
Trap: The Ashtadiggajas were ministers in Krishnadevaraya’s court – Fact: They were eight Telugu poets, not administrators; the term refers to literary luminaries, not political officeholders.

Practice MCQs

Question: Consider the following statements about the Vijayanagara economy:

1. Land revenue was fixed at one-tenth of the produce.

2. The Ayyavole guild was involved in maritime trade.

3. Horses were imported from Central Asia via the port of Surat.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A) 1 and 2 only
B) 2 only
C) 2 and 3 only
D) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
Explanation: Land revenue was typically one-fourth to one-sixth, not one-tenth; Ayyavole guild was indeed active in overseas trade; horses were imported from Arabia and Persia, but primarily through west coast ports like Goa, not Surat.
Why others fail: Statement 1 is incorrect due to overestimation of revenue share; Surat was not a major horse import point during Vijayanagara period.

Question: Which of the following temples in Hampi was used as a royal chapel for private worship by Vijayanagara kings?
A) Vittala Temple
B) Virupaksha Temple
C) Hazara Rama Temple
D) Krishna Temple
Answer: C
Explanation: The Hazara Rama Temple, located within the royal enclosure, was the private place of worship for the kings and features Ramayana reliefs.
Why others fail: Virupaksha was a public pilgrimage site; Vittala Temple was a major public temple complex, not a royal chapel.

Question: The work Amuktamalyada was composed by:
A) Allasani Peddana
B) Krishnadevaraya
C) Tenali Ramakrishna
D) Nandi Thimmana
Answer: B
Explanation: Krishnadevaraya authored Amuktamalyada in Telugu, promoting the idea of devotion and good governance.
Why others fail: Allasani Peddana was a court poet who wrote Manucharitram, not Amuktamalyada.

Question: Which foreign traveler visited the court of Deva Raya II and left a detailed account of the Vijayanagara administration?
A) Niccolò de’ Conti
B) Domingo Paes
C) Abdur Razzaq
D) Fernão Nunes
Answer: C
Explanation: Persian traveler Abdur Razzaq visited in 1443 during Deva Raya II’s reign and documented the military, economy, and court rituals.
Why others fail: Domingo Paes and Fernão Nunes visited during Krishnadevaraya’s reign; Niccolò de’ Conti came earlier (1420).

Question: The Battle of Talikota in 1565 was fought between the Vijayanagara Empire and:
A) A coalition of the Deccan Sultanates
B) The Mughal Empire
C) The Portuguese Navy
D) The Gajapati Kingdom
Answer: A
Explanation: The combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda, and Bidar defeated Vijayanagara at Talikota (also called Rakshasa-Tangadi).
Why others fail: The Mughals were not involved in the Deccan at that time; Portuguese were trading partners, not combatants.

Question: Which of the following best describes the Nayankara system in the Vijayanagara administration?
A) Assignment of land to Brahmins for religious services
B) Grant of tax-free lands to temples
C) Land assigned to military commanders for maintenance of troops
D) Direct revenue collection by central officials
Answer: C
Explanation: The Nayankara system involved granting land (amaram) to nayakas in exchange for military service, a key feature of the empire’s decentralized military structure.
Why others fail: Option A refers to Brahmadeya grants; option B to temple agraharas; option D contradicts the decentralized model.

Question: The Vittala Temple in Hampi is renowned for:
A) Its rock-cut architecture
B) Its musical pillars and stone chariot
C) Its monolithic Gopuram
D) Its underground Shiva linga
Answer: B
Explanation: The Vittala Temple features a stone chariot and pillars that produce musical notes when struck, showcasing advanced craftsmanship.
Why others fail: The temple is structural, not rock-cut; no monolithic gopuram or underground linga exists there.

Last?Minute Revision

• 1336: Foundation of Vijayanagara Empire by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I.
• 1509–1529: Reign of Krishnadevaraya.
• 1565: Battle of Talikota, sack of Hampi.
• Tuluva dynasty: Peak under Krishnadevaraya.
• Sangama dynasty: Founders of the empire.
• Abdur Razzaq: Persian traveler, visited 1443, court of Deva Raya II.
• Domingo Paes: Portuguese visitor, 1520–1522, described city’s grandeur.
• Fernão Nunes: Portuguese horse trader, wrote about later Vijayanagara.
• Hampi: Capital on Tungabhadra, now UNESCO World Heritage Site (1986).
• Vittala Temple: Musical pillars, stone chariot, built under Devaraya II.
• Hazara Rama Temple: Royal chapel, Ramayana panels.
• Virupaksha Temple: Oldest temple at Hampi, still functional.
• Amuktamalyada: Written by Krishnadevaraya in Telugu.
• Ashtadiggajas: Eight Telugu poets in Krishnadevaraya’s court.
• Ayyavole and Manigramam: Major merchant guilds.
• Nayankara system: Land grants to military chiefs.
• Raichur Doab: Contested region between Krishna and Tungabhadra, fought over with Bijapur.
• Kamalapuram tank: Irrigation project by Krishnadevaraya.
• Hiriya canal: Diverted Tungabhadra for irrigation.
• Penukonda: Capital after fall of Hampi.
• Chandragiri: Later capital, where Raja Wodeyar of Mysore received land grants.
• Battle of Talikota: Also known as Rakshasa-Tangadi.
• Devaraya II: Built Vittala Temple, patronized Sanskrit and Telugu.
• Land revenue: 1/4 to 1/6 of produce, not fixed at one-tenth.
• Horse trade: Via west coast ports, not Surat; supplied by Arabs and Portuguese.
• Vijayanagara coins: Gold varaha, silver pagoda, copper coins with royal emblems.