1. The narrowed valve prevents the outflow of the left ventricle. This results in left ventricular hypertrophy, which over time if it is not treated, will lead to increased pressure and volume in the left atrium and ultimately cause pulmonary HTN and edema. Forward flow (out of the aorta) may be decreased and can result in syncope or chest pain. The hypertrophic changes may lead to heart failure if this is not treated.

2. Ventricular action potentials: Phase ___ results in a rapid repolarization with massive K+ efflux. The voltage gated K+ channels open and the voltage gated Ca+ channels close which causes the rapid repolarization.

3. Occurs over time as preload increases and this further compromises contraction and cardiac output.

4. Ideal HDL level?

5. The _______ are responsible for heart contraction.

6. The pathological consequences of a _________________ are directly caused by the amount of blood being shunted. Volume overload occurs in the _________ of the heart. This leads to pulmonary hypertension, right ventricular hypertrophy (secondary to pulmonary HTN), left ventricular hypertrophy (secondary to increased blood return to the LV), and later a reversal of the shunt because the right side of the heart will end up with higher pressures than the left and the shunt reverses. This is known as _______________________.

7. The pathologic consequences of _______________ result in coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction, carotid artery disease, cerebral vascular disease, stroke, mesenteric ischemia, peripheral vascular disease, and renal artery stenosis.

8. Effects of aging on stroke volume

9. Clinical manifestations of stable angina?

10. In normal physiology the heart consumes fatty acids as it main source of energy. A failing heart has an _____________________________________________, and it is therefore unable to metabolize fatty acids for energy. The myocytes then begin using glucose for energy. _______________ increases and there is a decrease in mitochondrial activity. This lack of energy coupled with the high catecholamine levels causes an altered fatty acid oxidation and decreased effective ATP use and production.

11. Normal EF is _______ and is used as a parameter to measure cardiac function.

12. Clinical manifestations include dyspnea, hemoptysis, atrial enlargement, JVD, atrial fibrillation, dysphagia, and pulmonary hypertension. Individuals will have a diastolic murmur best heard at the cardiac apex which radiates to the left axilla.

13. ______ are responsible for delivering cholesterol to the tissues.

14. The ____________ receives deoxygenated blood from the body.

15. Risk factors include smoking and diabetes. Its presence is a good predictor of systemic atherosclerotic changes. Persons with ____ have more of a risk for CAD.

16. They inhibit the influx of calcium into the myocardium.

17. An increased level of LDLs is associated with an increased risk of developing CAD. LDL is a key player in the development of atherosclerosis.

18. These people will experience a decrease in cardiac output by about 20% and this will cause dyspnea, dizziness and fatigue. The stasis of blood in the atria is what is responsible for the development of a thrombus. EKG findings show a rapid, irregular rhythm without P waves.

19. Comprised of two things, the end diastolic volume and the end diastolic pressure.

20. ___________________ are released, one of which is endothelin which is a vasoconstrictor, and its release is associated with a poor prognosis. TNF and IL-6 both contribute to ventricular hypertrophy and remodeling. TNF prevents the synthesis of nitric oxide (thus causing vasoconstriction), induces myocyte apoptosis, and causes weakness and weight loss. IL-6 further activates the immune system.

21. The ___________ the amount of intracellular calcium, the _________ the degree of tension and the __________ the contraction. The reverse is true.

22. ________ and _______ are given to block the effects of RAAS.

23. Hydrogen ions and lactic acid accumulate from the _____________.

24. Can cause hypertension

25. The _____, _________, and ____________ may cause vasoconstriction but also contribute to the development of chronic inflammation and renal salt and water retention.