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Physiology Review

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Physiology Review

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25 Questions

1. Water Diffusion

PTH producing endocrine cells have a cell surface calcium receptor.

body has a 'set Point' for amount of Ca
mmmol/L is 1.0 is (just over) to 1.45 (just under)

PTH - Parathyroid Hormone

kidney stones, calcification of lining of blood vessels, hardening of arteries if too much Ca

must know how to correct this and get right parameters.

helping the body carry out its normal control functions as an ND.

for most control processes - in room or in body - controls Ca - must be a sensory system that can monitor it.

Thermometer does that in the classroom.
In the human body, theres a Ca receptor - sp protein - large aa - that resides on surface of some of our cells.

Endocrine gland - parathyroid gland - controls Ca levels in our blood. Need a receptor that can detct how much Ca is even there. Sits on cells in parathyroid gland and it constantly monitors.
If Ca starts going low - more PTH is released. Imp functions on kidney.
regulates how much Ca leaves your body and excreted in your urine every day.

Low LOW on CALCIUM in your blood (too low and you'll die) - ca receptor recognizes this b/c Ca is not binding to cell - has a pocket that Ca can fits into - PTH goes thru blood and reaches kidneys and make kidneys hold onto Ca. Opposite if you have too much. PTH is low and kidney let Ca leave the body in urine.

Ca can leave in urine.

how body absorbs Ca from dietary sources.
Calcitonin - enzyme .
Vit D is imp for Ca absorption

can increase protein in GI tract that help you get Ca in blood so boosts efficiency of Ca absorptionmembrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.Water diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.

2. two things affect the speed of signlaing

PTH producing endocrine cells have a cell surface calcium receptor.

body has a 'set Point' for amount of Ca
mmmol/L is 1.0 is (just over) to 1.45 (just under)

PTH - Parathyroid Hormone

kidney stones, calcification of lining of blood vessels, hardening of arteries if too much Ca

must know how to correct this and get right parameters.

helping the body carry out its normal control functions as an ND.

for most control processes - in room or in body - controls Ca - must be a sensory system that can monitor it.

Thermometer does that in the classroom.
In the human body, theres a Ca receptor - sp protein - large aa - that resides on surface of some of our cells.

Endocrine gland - parathyroid gland - controls Ca levels in our blood. Need a receptor that can detct how much Ca is even there. Sits on cells in parathyroid gland and it constantly monitors.
If Ca starts going low - more PTH is released. Imp functions on kidney.
regulates how much Ca leaves your body and excreted in your urine every day.

Low LOW on CALCIUM in your blood (too low and you'll die) - ca receptor recognizes this b/c Ca is not binding to cell - has a pocket that Ca can fits into - PTH goes thru blood and reaches kidneys and make kidneys hold onto Ca. Opposite if you have too much. PTH is low and kidney let Ca leave the body in urine.

Ca can leave in urine.

how body absorbs Ca from dietary sources.
Calcitonin - enzyme .
Vit D is imp for Ca absorption

can increase protein in GI tract that help you get Ca in blood so boosts efficiency of Ca absorptionWater diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.membrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.

3. depolarization phase

1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.PTH producing endocrine cells have a cell surface calcium receptor.

body has a 'set Point' for amount of Ca
mmmol/L is 1.0 is (just over) to 1.45 (just under)

PTH - Parathyroid Hormone

kidney stones, calcification of lining of blood vessels, hardening of arteries if too much Ca

must know how to correct this and get right parameters.

helping the body carry out its normal control functions as an ND.

for most control processes - in room or in body - controls Ca - must be a sensory system that can monitor it.

Thermometer does that in the classroom.
In the human body, theres a Ca receptor - sp protein - large aa - that resides on surface of some of our cells.

Endocrine gland - parathyroid gland - controls Ca levels in our blood. Need a receptor that can detct how much Ca is even there. Sits on cells in parathyroid gland and it constantly monitors.
If Ca starts going low - more PTH is released. Imp functions on kidney.
regulates how much Ca leaves your body and excreted in your urine every day.

Low LOW on CALCIUM in your blood (too low and you'll die) - ca receptor recognizes this b/c Ca is not binding to cell - has a pocket that Ca can fits into - PTH goes thru blood and reaches kidneys and make kidneys hold onto Ca. Opposite if you have too much. PTH is low and kidney let Ca leave the body in urine.

Ca can leave in urine.

how body absorbs Ca from dietary sources.
Calcitonin - enzyme .
Vit D is imp for Ca absorption

can increase protein in GI tract that help you get Ca in blood so boosts efficiency of Ca absorptionWater diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.membrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.

4. how PTH works/is regulated

PTH producing endocrine cells have a cell surface calcium receptor.

body has a 'set Point' for amount of Ca
mmmol/L is 1.0 is (just over) to 1.45 (just under)

PTH - Parathyroid Hormone

kidney stones, calcification of lining of blood vessels, hardening of arteries if too much Ca

must know how to correct this and get right parameters.

helping the body carry out its normal control functions as an ND.

for most control processes - in room or in body - controls Ca - must be a sensory system that can monitor it.

Thermometer does that in the classroom.
In the human body, theres a Ca receptor - sp protein - large aa - that resides on surface of some of our cells.

Endocrine gland - parathyroid gland - controls Ca levels in our blood. Need a receptor that can detct how much Ca is even there. Sits on cells in parathyroid gland and it constantly monitors.
If Ca starts going low - more PTH is released. Imp functions on kidney.
regulates how much Ca leaves your body and excreted in your urine every day.

Low LOW on CALCIUM in your blood (too low and you'll die) - ca receptor recognizes this b/c Ca is not binding to cell - has a pocket that Ca can fits into - PTH goes thru blood and reaches kidneys and make kidneys hold onto Ca. Opposite if you have too much. PTH is low and kidney let Ca leave the body in urine.

Ca can leave in urine.

how body absorbs Ca from dietary sources.
Calcitonin - enzyme .
Vit D is imp for Ca absorption

can increase protein in GI tract that help you get Ca in blood so boosts efficiency of Ca absorptionWater diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.membrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.

5. what are the first messengers?

Consequently, the extracellular ligands are called 'first messengers' and the

intracellular mediators are called 'second messengers.' Second messengers bring about many short-term changes in cell function by

altering enzyme function,
triggering exocytosis,

but they also can lead to the alteration of transcription of various genes.membrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.Water diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.

6. Medical importance of membrane transport

1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.Water diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.membrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.1.Diseases due to defects in membrane transport proteins
2.Disregulation of physiological membrane transport processes
3. Membrane transport proteins as targets for chemical intervention into disease processes

7. co-translational

1. Any process involving the maturation or delivery of a protein that occurs during the process of translation.Water diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.membrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.

8. what membrane transport defect caused pain in erythermalgia?

what membrane transport defect caused pain in erythermalgia?
Mutated sodium channel protein

mutated Na/K pump is pretty devastating - brain function diminishes1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.membrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.Water diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.

9. diseases of lysosome

1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.When a lysosomal enzyme is congenitally absent, the lysosomes become engorged with the material the enzyme normally degrades. This eventually leads to one of the lysosomal diseases (also called lysosomal storage diseases).

Fabry disease is caused by a deficiency in α-galactosidase;

Gaucher disease is caused by a deficiency in β-galactocerebrosidase and

Tay-Sachs disease, which causes mental retardation and blindness, is caused by the loss of hexosaminidase A, a lysosomal enzyme that catalyzes the biodegradation of gangliosides (fatty acid derivatives).membrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.Water diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.

10. What part of a voltage-gated potassium channel functions as the voltage-sensing element?

1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.Water diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.membrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.transient outward (TO) K+ channels - voltage sensing . S1/S4 off of helices.

11. What does inositol triphosphate do?

1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.membrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.Water diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.binds to a receptor located in the endoplasmic reticulum

the IP3 receptor can open calcium channels
when the calcium channels open, calcium is released from the ER compartment

the cytoplasmic Ca++ functions like a second messenger

12. (General) definition of an action potential

an AP is a transient depolarization of the cell membrane that results from a rapid activation of voltage-gated sodium channels followed by an inactivation of those channels and the delayed activation of voltage-gated potassium channels.membrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.Water diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.

13. Examples of second messengers

cyclic nucleotides such as

1. cAMP - cyclic adenosine monophosphate & cGMP
2. lipids like IP3 and DAG
3. ions like Ca
4. gases like NO and COmembrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.Water diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.

14. Two types of transport

Passive (no energy) and active (energy)Water diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.membrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.

15. What is an example of a ligand that prevents activation of acetylcholine receptors?

curare - poison arrow

- the arrow poison curare contains a ligand that binds to the acetylcholine receptor (which is an ion channel, too)membrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.Water diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.

16. osmotic pressure equation

Water diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.membrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.osmotic pressure of a solution (π) is the pressure that would stop osmosis

**π = nRTC *****

* C is concentration of a solute
* n is 2 for NaCl, 3 for CaCl2, etc
* R is the gas constant
* T is temperature

17. Swainsonine affects which organelle.

18. GTP is
1. active?
2. inactive?

19. receptor-mediated endocytosis

Receptor - mediated endocytosis - receptor protein w/ a binding pocket - binds ONE particluar molecule - receptors combine with one particle molecule

collagen comes in to build extracellular matrix . act as an anchor like connective tissue . but they can get damaged. oxidzaited . need to be recycled. hence endocytosis.

absorbe Fe in GI, must transport Fe thru blood stream to bone marrow. carry by transferrin. and transferrin receptor.

RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS - only way. LDL receptor. liver has a lot of these- can bind LDL particles and endocytosis LDL> removed form the blood. discovered in Haitian who have defects in LDL receptors. can't remove it so they go way high. they can die fro heart disease in early 20's. LDL is blood is damaging. Think big. Proteins like hemoglobins, LDL, etc.1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.

20. VsTX toxin

membrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.Water diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.VsTX toxin from tarantula can bind to S4 helix. b) tarantula venom component VsTX - bind to K and locks it into place and it can't shift anymore. that s how they hunt an paralyze their victiom. toxin bind to ion channel and locks it not a non confomraiton place and paralyzed the victim .1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.

21. what do sodium-K pumps and Ca ion pump proteins have?

Water diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.membrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.1.they use energy from ATP
2.they become phosphorylated during the transport cycle
3. they have ATPase activity

22. reserpine

membrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.Water diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.- the neurotransmitter transport disrupter reserpine is a ligand that binds to a carrier protein

23. transcytosis

Water diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.membrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.transport across epithelial cell layers. How do you get it inside? You use receptor mediated endocytosis.

Send it into lysosomes and they have low pH environment. transferrin from surface and fuses with lysosome and in low pH and it changes shape of transferrin molecule and releases transferrin where cell can use it.
Ex: immunoglobin transport

Mammary gland - make milk. Lumen. producing milk, one molecule that can get into milk are immunoglobins. important for immune system. important antibodies.

Transcytosis - moved immunoglobins across epithelial layer. to get a sepcific substance into an epithelial cells.

24. Ion Channel

membrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.Are integral proteins that span the membrane, permit passage of certain ions

pass by based on size and distribution of charge

may be open or close

opening and closing of channels is controlled by gates

2. shaping action potentials and other electrical signals by gating the flow of ions across the cell membrane,

3.controlling the flow of ions across secretory and epithelial cells, and regulating cell volume.

Es: voltage-gated ion channels - when Na depolarizes the cell membrane

ligand-gated channels
1. opened or closed by hormones
2. second messengers
3. neurotransmitters

nicotinic receptor for ACh. comes down and preps for APWater diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.

25. regulation of phospholipase C

1. glial cells

2. diameter of axon. bigger means a faster relay of the signal. like a hot stove. but for chronic heat - that would be smaller. Or if bone is broken - we don't need to be reminded.some forms of phospholipase C are activated by GPCRs

example: α1-adrenergic receptors of smooth muscle cells

resulting IP3 stimulates Ca++ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum

increased cytoplasmic calcium level causes muscle contractionWater diffusion is called osmosis. Oxygen is a small molecule and it's nonpolar, so it easily passes through a cell membrane.

Carbon dioxide, the byproduct of cell respiration, is small enough to readily diffuse out of a cell.

Small uncharged lipid molecules can pass through the lipid innards of the membrane.membrane potential changes from negative to positive

action potential initiation - membrane potential becomes less negative

1. Inward current depolarizes the membrane potential to threshold.

2. Depolarization causes rapid opening of the activation gates of the Na+ channels, and the Na+ conductance of the membrane promptly increase.

3. The Na+ conductance becomes higher than the K+ conductance, and the membrane potential is driven toward the Na+ equilibrium potential of +65mV. The rapid depolarization during the upstroke is caused by an inward Na+ current.

4. the overshoot is the brief portion at the peak of the action potential when the membrane potential is positive.

5. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and lidocaine block these voltage-sensitive Na+ channels and abolish action potentials.

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25 Questions

❤ If you liked Fatskills, consider supporting us by checking out The Life Manuals You Never Got.

About | Explore | User Guide | Topics | Subjects | Doubt Solver | Career Aptitude Test | Answers | Free Tools | What Should We Know? Privacy | Terms |

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All trademarks, logos and brand names are the property of their respective owners. All company, product and service names used in this website are for identification purposes only. Use of these names, trademarks and brands does not imply endorsement.

About | Explore | User Guide | Topics | Subjects | Doubt Solver | Career Aptitude Test | Answers | Free Tools | What Should We Know?
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Without work one finishes nothing. - Ralph Waldo Emerson
© 2026 Fatskills.com