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1. Southern North Sea Basin

To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.Natural gas (carbon dioxide or nitrogen) are injected into the reservoir rock above the oil to maintain the pressure.

2. Coal Seam

Natural gas (carbon dioxide or nitrogen) are injected into the reservoir rock above the oil to maintain the pressure.To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.

3. Primary Recovery

The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.Natural gas (carbon dioxide or nitrogen) are injected into the reservoir rock above the oil to maintain the pressure.

4. Gas Cap Drive

An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.Natural gas (carbon dioxide or nitrogen) are injected into the reservoir rock above the oil to maintain the pressure.

5. How Can Petroleum Be Destroyed or Lost?

The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.Oil and gas may be destroyed if the temperature exceeds 200Â°C due to: | -Heat from an igneous intrusion or volcanic activity. | -Regional metamorphism. | -Burial where the geothermal gradient results in high temperatures. | Oil and gas may be lost from a trap by: | -Erosion or removal of the overlying cap rock. | -Escaping upwards along an unsealed fault plane.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.

6. Geothermal Gradient

To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.The geothermal gradient is the increase in temperature with depth. The average geothermal gradient is 25Â°C/km, varying from 10Â°C/km in continental shield areas to more than 70Â°C/km in volcanically active areas. Areas with the highest geothermal gradient tend to be at or near plate margins and this is where the prospects for geothermal energy are best.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.

7. Cap Rock

The reservoir rock must be overlain by an impermeable cap rock. The cap rock prevents further migration petroleum. Without a cap rock the petroleum would continue to rise, eventually forming oil seeps or tar pits on the surface. Suitable cap rocks include clay, mudstone, shale and crystalline sedimentary rocks such as evaporites.To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.

8. Coal Mining

To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.Coal has been mined for thousands of years, initially where it outcropped and the seam was followed into the ground parallel to the bed. These adit mines gradually developed into full underground mines.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.

9. Where Does The Earth's Heat Come From?

The planets internal heat was originally generated during its formation. This energy is known as gravitational binding energy, the energy generated when mass accretes. -Additional heat is continually generated by the radioactive decay of heat producing elements such as Uranium, Thorium and Potassium.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.

10. Acid Mine Drainage

Sulphur is a common impurity within coal and when mixed with rainwater creates weak sulphuric acid. The acid also dissolves and mobilises heavy metals e.g. Pb, Ni and Cd within the rocks which may enter the water supplies. Acidic waters also destroy vegetation.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.

11. Two-Way Time (TWT)

To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.Seismic profiles are commonly constructed using two-way time, which is the time taken for a seismic waves to travel to a reflective layer and return to the surface

12. Secondary Recovery

To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.Thermal methods - Steam is injected to increase the oils temperature and lower the viscosity of the oil -Detergents - Used to reduce surface tension of the oil to loosen it from the grains -Bacteriological - Digest and break down large hydrocarbon molecules to decrease viscosity. | Even after secondary recovery 20-30% of the oil still remains in the reservoir.

13. Salt Caverns

Evaporites are impermeable and therefore ideal for underground storage. Salt Caverns are constructed by injecting water to dissolve the salt and then pumping it out as brine, which can be used in the chemical industry. Salt caverns are ideal as natural gas can be replenished and removed rapidly as they are hollow and do not contain grains to restrict flow.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.

14. Requirements For the Formation of Coal

To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.Peat and coal originate in deltaic sequences. The main requirements for formation are: -Hot, humid climate - Encourages rapid growth of trees, so most coal forms in equatorial and humid, tropical climates. -Anoxic conditions - Prevents decay of the plant matter. Anaerobic bacteria slowly change the plant matter into peat. -Rapid burial - Only deltaic sedimentary environments have sufficiently high sedimentation and subsidence to build up the large thickness of peat required to form economic quantities of coal.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.

15. Extraction of Geothermal Energy

An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.A borehole is drilled into the rock. As super-heated water rises up the borehole, the reduction in pressure causes it to flash to steam. The steam may be used to directly drive turbines or passed through a heat exchanger to heat freshwater and generate steam, reducing the problems of corrosive volcanic waters. The water is then pumped back into the ground after use to eliminate waste disposal problems and help extend the life of the well.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.

16. Hot Dry Rock Sources

An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.Granite intrusions contain a higher concentration of radioactive heat producing elements. As granites are impermeable twin boreholes are drilled and high pressure water is injected to artificially fracture the rock. Cold water is then pumped down one borehole, heated by the hot rocks and rises up the second borehole.

17. Factors Affecting Recovery

Viscosity of oil - Higher viscosity oils don't flow as easily. - % of matrix or cement - A Higher % will reduce pore space/storage capacity and increase grains per unit volume therefore increasing surface tension. - Grain shape - Rounded grains have a higher porosity - Sorting - Poorly sorted rocks contain less oil as smaller grains infill pore spaces. - Grain size - Smaller grains have a larger surface area producing more friction and reducing permeability. - Joints - Joints increase porosity and permeability allowing oil to be stored and transmitted.To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.

18. Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy

To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.Gamma rays emmited by rocks as a result of radioactive decay are counted. Potential source rocks give a high gamma ray count as they are mineralogically and chemically diverse where as reservoir rocks give a low reading as they are mineralogically and chemically simple.

19. Spills of Light Fractions

To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.Covers seabirds leading to a loss of buoyancy and drowning. -Enters the plumage of birds and impacts upon their thermoregulation. -Blocks out sunlight leading to a reduction in photosynthetic algae (Phytoplankton), which in turn has knock-on effects for the ecosystem.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.

20. Reserves of Oil and Natural Gas

Reserves are the amount of the resource that can be extracted at a profit using existing technologies.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.

21. What Is Geothermal Energy?

The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.Geothermal energy is energy extracted from hot subsurface rocks, magma or heated water/steam. It is used to heat buildings, provide hot water and drive turbines to generate electricity.To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.

22. Oil Shale

A general term for any fine grained sedimentary rock containing significant amounts of kerogen, that did not undergo enough maturation to produce petroleum. Oil shales can be processed by steam injection to produce oil that can be pumped out. Alternatively they can be mined and the kerogen converted into synthetic crude oil or burnt as a low grade fuel.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.

23. Concealed Coalfield

To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.A concealed coalfield is where coal-bearing strata are below the surface and covered by younger rocks.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.

24. Environmental Issues

Deforestation leads to carbon dioxide sinks and landslides as trees roots bind surfaces together and leaves act as interception surfaces. -Destruction of habitats and ecosystems. -Dust from blasting and mining cause's silicosis (lung disease). -Visual pollution from scar on landscape and noise pollution from blasting and transport trucks. -Burning of coal leads to carbon dioxide and soot emissions.To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.

25. Advantages of Offshore versus Land-Based Surveys

An economically viable layer of coal, usually 1-2m thick.The hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea basin do not contain oil but only produce natural gas. -This is because the source rock for this area is the carboniferous coal measures. -Coal forms from the breakdown of vegetation so the source rock did not at any time contain plankton needed for oil. -Escaped gas is mainly held in desert sandstone reservoirs. -The cap rocks are often clays and evaporites and the traps are mainly salt domes and their associated anticlines.To extract reserves the reservoir rock is drilled and a production well established. Initially oil comes to the surface under natural pressure caused by hydrostatic pressure of he water in pore spaces beneath the oil, gasses in the oil coming out of solution and the expansion of gas above the oil. After the natural pressure is released oil is pumped to the surface using nodding donkeys. Typically only 20-30% of the oil in a reservoir can be recovered by primary recovery.Offshore surveys are particularly effective as a large number of hydrophones an be towed behind a ship. - Also a ships path is not restricted like vibrotrucks are on land.

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