Human Geography 101: Urban Geography - Urban Problems Housing Transportation Sprawl Pollution Segregation

What This Is

Urban problems refer to the challenges faced by cities and their residents, including housing shortages, transportation congestion, sprawl, pollution, and segregation. These issues are critical for understanding spatial patterns and human-environment interactions, as they affect the quality of life, economic development, and social cohesion in urban areas. For example, the rapid growth of cities in the United States, such as Los Angeles, has led to severe traffic congestion, housing shortages, and environmental degradation, making it essential to understand the underlying causes and consequences of urban problems.

Key Models, Theories & Terms

• Urban Hierarchy Model: A model that explains the distribution of cities based on their size and economic function, with larger cities serving as hubs for trade and commerce (e.g., New York City as a hub for finance and trade).
• Burgess Concentric Zone Model: A model that describes the growth of cities in concentric zones, with the central business district at the center and residential areas expanding outward (e.g., Chicago's concentric zones).
• Sector Model: A model that explains the growth of cities in sectors, with different zones serving different economic functions (e.g., Los Angeles's sector model, with the port serving as a hub for trade).
• Multiple Nuclei Model: A model that explains the growth of cities with multiple centers, such as suburbs and downtown areas (e.g., San Francisco's multiple nuclei model).
• Urban Sprawl: The spread of urban development into surrounding rural areas, often leading to environmental degradation and social isolation (e.g., the sprawl of Phoenix, Arizona).
• Gentrification: The process of wealthier residents moving into previously low-income neighborhoods, often leading to displacement of long-time residents (e.g., gentrification in London's Shoreditch neighborhood).
• Urban Renewal: The process of revitalizing urban areas through public and private investment, often leading to the displacement of low-income residents (e.g., urban renewal in New York City's Times Square).
• Environmental Justice: The movement to address the disproportionate impact of environmental pollution and degradation on low-income and minority communities (e.g., the struggle for environmental justice in Flint, Michigan).
• Transportation Mode Split: The proportion of trips made by different modes of transportation, such as walking, driving, or public transit (e.g., the transportation mode split in Tokyo, Japan).
• Urban Agriculture: The practice of growing food within urban areas, often using innovative methods and technologies (e.g., urban agriculture in Detroit, Michigan).

Step-by-Step Application

1. Identify the dominant urban model that describes the structure of a city, such as the Burgess Concentric Zone Model or the Sector Model.
2. Analyze the transportation mode split in a city, including the proportion of trips made by different modes of transportation.
3. Examine the impact of gentrification on a neighborhood, including the displacement of long-time residents and the changes in housing prices and demographics.
4. Evaluate the effectiveness of urban renewal efforts in a city, including the impact on low-income residents and the environment.
5. Identify the environmental justice issues in a city, including the disproportionate impact of pollution and degradation on low-income and minority communities.
6. Analyze the role of urban agriculture in a city, including its impact on food security and community development.

Common Misconceptions

• Misconception: All migration is permanent.
• Correction: Not all migration is permanent, as people may move temporarily for work or education, or return to their hometowns after a period of time.
• Example: The temporary migration of workers from rural areas to cities in China for seasonal work.
• Misconception: GDP per capita is the same as standard of living.
• Correction: GDP per capita is an economic indicator that does not necessarily reflect the standard of living, as it does not account for factors such as income inequality and access to basic services.
• Example: A country with a high GDP per capita may still have a low standard of living due to high levels of income inequality.
• Misconception: Rank-size rule applies to every country.
• Correction: The rank-size rule, which describes the distribution of city sizes, does not apply to every country, as it is influenced by factors such as economic development and urbanization.
• Example: The rank-size rule does not apply to countries with a high level of economic inequality, such as South Africa.

AP Exam / Free-Response Tips

• FRQ Task Verbs: Identify, describe, explain, compare, and analyze are common task verbs on the AP Human Geography exam.
• Integrating Models: Be sure to integrate models and theories into your essays, using them to explain and analyze the urban problems you are discussing.
• Distinctions: Be aware of key distinctions, such as the difference between ethnicity and nationality, and the difference between site and situation.
• Scoring: FRQs are scored on a scale of 1-7, with 7 being the highest score. Be sure to address all parts of the question and provide clear and concise answers.

Quick Practice Scenario

A megacity in a developing country grows rapidly as rural residents move in for factory jobs. Identify the dominant migration pattern and one likely urban model that describes its structure.

Answer: The dominant migration pattern is rural-urban migration, and one likely urban model that describes its structure is the Burgess Concentric Zone Model.

Explanation: The rapid growth of the megacity is likely due to rural-urban migration, as people move from rural areas to cities for factory jobs. The Burgess Concentric Zone Model is a likely urban model that describes its structure, as it explains the growth of cities in concentric zones, with the central business district at the center and residential areas expanding outward.

Last-Minute Cram Sheet

• Urban Hierarchy Model: A model that explains the distribution of cities based on their size and economic function.
• Burgess Concentric Zone Model: A model that describes the growth of cities in concentric zones.
• Sector Model: A model that explains the growth of cities in sectors.
• Multiple Nuclei Model: A model that explains the growth of cities with multiple centers.
• Urban Sprawl: The spread of urban development into surrounding rural areas.
• Gentrification: The process of wealthier residents moving into previously low-income neighborhoods.
• Urban Renewal: The process of revitalizing urban areas through public and private investment.
• Environmental Justice: The movement to address the disproportionate impact of environmental pollution and degradation on low-income and minority communities.
• Transportation Mode Split: The proportion of trips made by different modes of transportation.
• Urban Agriculture: The practice of growing food within urban areas.
• Demographic Transition Model: A five-stage model linking population growth to economic development.
• Von Thünen's Model of Agricultural Land Use: A model that explains the distribution of agricultural land use based on transportation costs.
• Ethnic religion (Judaism, Hinduism) is not the same as universalizing religion (Christianity, Islam, Buddhism) – ethnic religions do not actively seek converts.