Art Appreciation: Sculpture, Ceramics, Fiber Art, and Jewelry

Ceramics as a Medium
Throughout history, ceramics have been used for fine arts and for functional pieces. Around 24,000 b.c., humans began making small figures out of clay. In 9,000 or 10,000 b.c., the first functional pottery and bricks were made. Glazes were discovered in Egypt around 8,000 b.c. A potter's wheel was used in Central America around 3,000 b.c.
In ancient Greece, decorative vases depicted daily life and religion and were later decorated with black figures and red figures. Porcelain was developed in China during the Han dynasty (206 b.c.–a.d. 220). Pottery now can be mass-manufactured, but many fine artworks and functional pieces are still created by hand.
Ceramics are items produced from clay, including fine artwork, sculptures, figurines, and functional items such as tiles, dishes, urns, and vases. The item is formed, and then it is heated to harden it. A glaze can be applied, and then the item is reheated to harden the glaze. An underglaze can be applied first as a painted decoration. They can be hand built, pressed into molds, or created using a wheel.

Sculpture as a Medium
Sculptures have been created throughout history from many media, and only the most durable have survived. They can be small figures, larger freestanding works, or reliefs attached to walls. The first known prehistoric sculptures are from the Stone Age, approximately 230,000 b.c., and they were made from basalt and quartz. Figures called Venuses (shaped as obese women, possibly related to fertility) have been found from the Stone Age and were made from materials such as bone and various stones. Mesolithic sculpture, from 10,000–4,000 b.c., included freestanding sculptures and bas-relief works. In the Neolithic period (4,000–2,000 b.c.), bronze statuettes were created.
Classical Greek sculpture is some of the most well known, dating from 500–323 b.c., and these superbly crafted figures would only be surpassed by later Renaissance artists. The Renaissance (a.d. 1,400–1,600) was a 'rebirth' of classical ideals, and the sculptors created figures with great realism.
Michelangelo (Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni) is considered as the greatest Renaissance sculptor. Traditional materials were used throughout history, including stone, wood, bone, and metal.

Bas-Relief vs Haut-Relief
In terms of sculpture, a relief is a sculpture in which the sculptural elements are attached to a solid background. For the sculpture to appear raised from the background, the background elements are cut away, leaving the subject raised.
A bas relief is also called a low relief. The final sculpture has a shallow depth and is not raised far from the background. Coins are a good example of this. In this type of relief sculpture, elements are often distorted by being flattened.
A haut-relief is also called a high relief; this is when more than half of the sculptural form is projecting from the background. Heads and limbs might be completely detached from the background in this form of relief. Many ancient Greek relief sculptures used this technique. This image is an example of a high, or haut-relief sculpture.
Although the figures are still attached to the background, they are mostly projecting from it, only being attached at their backs.

Clays
Clays can be classified as high fire and low fire. The three most commonly used types of clay are earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain.
Earthenware was the earliest clay used, and it is fired to a temperature of less than 1,200°C. Terra cotta is a type of earthenware that is reddish brown in color. Earthenware is brown, orange, or red in its raw and fired state.
Earthenware is more porous than stoneware or porcelain, and it is less durable.
Stoneware is a mid- to high-fire clay that ranges from light gray to brown when fired. Stoneware is nonporous, and it differs from porcelain in that it is more opaque.
Porcelain has a rich history in China, and items made with porcelain are often called china or fine china in some English-speaking countries. Porcelain is a high-fire clay that is made with kaolin, which makes the finished product pure white. Porcelain is fired to 1,800°C, and when it is fired, it is hard, nonporous, and translucent.

Materials Used for Sculpture
Stone has been used for sculptures for centuries, and the artist must use the subtractive method - removing pieces of the stone to shape the sculpture. Marble has been a preferred material for traditional sculptors since ancient Greece, but artists also use granite, limestone, sandstone, and alabaster.
Wood has been used historically for carving, and many important sculptures in Africa, China, and Japan were carved from wood. It is lighter and much easier to carve than stone.
Glass can be cast in molds or heated in kilns and then blown or sculpted with hand tools. Larger scale glass sculptures are a modern development. Glass was believed to be discovered in Egypt around 8,000 b.c.

Clay has been used for thousands of years to form pottery. The first functional pottery vessels were created in 10,000 b.c. People were crafting human and animal figures from clay as early as 24,000 b.c. Many cultures have used pottery for fine arts and functional vessels. Clay is a natural material found in the earth, but artists prefer different types. Clay can now be bought commercially, or it can be mixed by the artist.Tools Used for Sculpture
Tools such as chisels, pitching tools, rasps, mallets, and rifflers are used to sculpt stone. A chisel is a piece of steel that is pointed at one end and flat on the other end. A pitching tool is a wedge-shaped chisel.
The chisel or pitching tool can be positioned on the stone and hit on the flat end with a mallet to break away unwanted stone. Rasps are flat steel tools with a rough surface, which can be used to wear away excess stone. A riffler is a smaller rasp used for details. Sandpaper or emery (a type of stone) can be used to polish a stone sculpture.
For pottery, an artist uses tools such as cutters and rolling pins for hand building. Ribbon or loop tools are made from a flattened metal ribbon and are attached to a wooden handle. These are used to trim, carve, and hollow out shapes. A wire cutter is used to remove a pot from a potter's wheel. A caliper is an adjustable tool used to measure openings for making lids.
For wood sculpture, similar tools are used as those for stone sculptures: chisels, rasps, mallets, and sandpaper. Gouges are useful for digging into the wood, and knives are also used for carving.

Additive vs Subtractive Sculpture Techniques
Subtractive sculpture is the oldest form of sculpture. This consists of removing material from a larger piece, such as marble, wood, or another material. Michelangelo was a master of this subtractive technique, also known as carving. Michelangelo would begin with a large block of marble, and then he would carve and chip away until he was satisfied with his sculpture.
The original piece of material has to be big enough to accommodate the size and shape of the finished work of art.
The additive technique consists of adding material to create an artwork. A soft material, such as clay or plaster strips, is built up over an armature until the final form is achieved. This is also called modeling.
With the additive technique, the sculpture can start small and be built larger.
Another additive sculpture technique is assembling. This technique became popular in the 1950s and 1960s. The artist creates a three-dimensional collage by gluing, welding, nailing, and otherwise joining objects - usually found objects. The final product is called an assemblage.

Hand Building and Wheel Throwing
Hand building is working with clay without a pottery wheel.
Three methods are slab building, pinch pot, and the coil method. For slab building, clay is rolled into sheets and cut into shapes. The shapes are cut out and then joined together. The artist would score the edges with a sharp clay tool and then add some slip (liquid clay) to join the edges securely.
A pinch pot is created by rolling a ball of clay and then inserting a thumb into the ball. The artist presses the sides out evenly with the thumb on the inside of the pot and the fingers on the outside, until the sides and bottom are of consistent width and are smooth.
For the coil method, the artist first makes a shallow pinch pot as the base. He or she then rolls long coils of clay and builds up the body of the bowl or pot in a spiral, scoring and adding slip as the object is built.
Wheel throwing consists of using a potter's wheel to throw clay objects. The artist will first get any air bubbles out of the clay by wedging (kneading) the item on a surface, and then he or she uses slip to create the object as the clay spins on the wheel.

Modern vs Traditional Sculpture Materials
Traditional sculpture materials include stone, wood, clay, and metal. Stone (including marble) sculptures have survived through the years better than other materials due to their durability. Most works created with wood have been lost to decay, insect damage, and fire. Sculptors in ancient
Greece and during the Renaissance focused on depicting the human body, and many ancient sculptures depicted religious or political subjects.
Modern sculptors have moved away from traditional materials and subjects and focus more on assembling and found objects. Picasso changed the direction of sculpture when he began constructing sculptures from different objects, much like a sculptural collage, in the early 20th century. In the 1940s and 1950s, artists began creating abstract and surreal sculptures and experimenting with new materials. This includes Alexander Calder's mobiles and David Smith's stainless steel sculptures. By the 1960s, some artists began creating minimalist works and experimenting with steel and environmental installations. Modern artists have also created sound sculptures, light sculptures, street art sculptures, and kinetic sculptures.

The Stages of Clay
The stages of clay determine how fragile or workable it is and what can or should be done to it next. Clay that has partially dried but is not completely dry is leather hard. When a piece is leather hard, the artist can carve the piece or add decorative slip. Handles can be added, and the foot of a pot can be trimmed.
Bone dry refers to when the clay is completely dry.
The clay will be a lighter color. The piece will be fragile; attaching and carving cannot be done at this stage.
Bisque is when the piece has been fired once in a kiln. Bisqueware can be glazed and fired again. At this stage, prior to being glazed, the clay is still porous. Prior to being fired, all unfired clay pieces are referred to as greenware.
Slip is a liquid clay mixture that can be used to join clay pieces together. Slip is a mix of clay and water, and it has a runny consistency.

Summarize the Use and Significance of Ceramics in China.
Pottery was first made in China during the Paleolithic era, and it became the most well-known form of art in China. Porcelain, a type of ceramic, is so associated with China that porcelain wares are dubbed 'china' or 'fine china' in other countries.
Porcelain originated in China, and although proto-porcelain was made as early as 1,600 b.c., it developed into high-fire porcelain in the Han dynasty (206 b.c.–a.d. 220). Later during the Ming dynasty, they began exporting porcelain wares to Europe. During the Ming dynasty (a.d.
1368–1644), cobalt underglazing was perfected, leading to the production of the iconic blue and white vases from that period. The blue underglaze is painted onto the porcelain, and then a clear glaze is applied, and the piece is fired.
Contemporary artist Ai Weiwei blends modern ideas with historical Chinese materials. One of his performance art pieces involved dropping a Han dynasty urn. Another work involved creating 100 million porcelain sunflower seeds.

Sculptures from Ancient Greece vs Rome
Sculpture in ancient Greece often depicted battles, mythology, and their rulers. Whereas earlier sculptures were made from limestone or bronze, the later larger sculptural works were made from marble or bronze. The classical period of Greek sculpture showed great skill in depicting human anatomy and natural poses. Sculptures were life-sized and realistic. Most bronze Greek sculptures have only survived as Roman copies. The Greeks used the lost-wax technique to create their metal sculptures.
Sculptures in ancient Rome focused more on portrait and less on the idealized human body. The sculptured figures were more rigid and less natural than the Greek sculptures. Their sculptures reflected the current styles and hairdos, and they could even be dated by historians based on these fashions. Romans sought to immortalize and capture a likeness of a person, whereas Greeks sought to idealize them. There are many original Roman sculptures, but there are also many Roman copies of Greek sculptures.

Renaissance Sculpture Subjects and Techniques
The hallmarks of the early Renaissance were classical composition and realism. Artists portrayed their subjects with a naturalism of their clothing, proportions, and perspective. These Italian artists recalled the classical sculptures of ancient Greece, and their subjects and forms.
Throughout the Renaissance, sculptors created religious and secular sculptures.
Church interiors, palaces, and private homes were elaborately decorated. The
Madonna and Child were a popular subject, as well as scenes from the life of Christ. During the High Renaissance, subjects broadened and diverged more away from religious themes to include mythology and other topics.
Lorenzo Ghiberti won a contest to create large bronze doors at the Florence Baptistery, and this is thought of as the beginning of Renaissance sculpture. Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi, better known as Donatello, is another well-known sculptor of the 15th century, second only to Michelangelo. Both created many large marble and bronze sculptures. Donatello's most well known work is his David, cast in bronze. Michelangelo is known for many sculptures including the Pieta and David, both marble. This image is of Michelangelo's David.


Lost-Wax Casting Technique
Lost-wax casting is a technique in which a metal copy of a sculpture is produced from an original sculpture. This technique was used as early as 3,700 b.c. To produce a sculpture with this method, a mold is first made of a clay sculpture. The inside of this mold is brushed with wax until the wax is the thickness of the intended metal sculpture. The mold is removed, and the shell of wax is filled with a heat-resistant material. Then a heat-resistant plaster covers the wax, and the assemblage is turned over and placed in an oven. The wax drains away through vents places in the shell; after the plaster mold has been filled with sand, bronze is poured into the void left by the wax. After the whole assemblage has cooled off, the plaster and center are both removed, and the artist can apply any finishing touches to the bronze sculpture.

Fiber Art as a Medium
The term fiber art was first used by curators after World War II. It described works relating to fabrics, and it includes embroidery, weaving, knitting, crocheting, and sewing. Fiber arts take into consideration the artist's skill and labor to create the work, as well as the materials used, and it focuses more on the aesthetics than on the usefulness of the item.
In the 1950s, fiber artists began weaving more nonfunctional artworks. Then in the 1960s and 1970s, artists began exploring different techniques including knotting, coiling, and pleating fibers. The feminist movement began using fibers as 'high art' and celebrating needlework in the 1970s. From the 1980s to the present, fiber artists have created more conceptual work, influenced by postmodernism. They have focused on cultural issues including feminism, gender, politics, and social sciences. Judy Chicago first used the term feminist art and founded the first feminist art program in the United States. Her work The Dinner Party incorporated fiber arts and celebrated the position that needlework and fabric has had in the history of women.

Fibers and Materials
A fiber is a threadlike piece or material created from threadlike pieces. This includes materials such as fabric, yarn, and embroidery thread. Fibers can be made of natural materials, such as cotton, wool from sheep, or silk from a silkworm, but they can also be made from synthetic materials such as acrylic used to make yarn.
Yarn can be bought premade, or it can be spun by the artist.
To spin yarn, the artist starts with roving, which is wool that has been run through a mill to brush the fibers in the same direction but hasn't been spun into yarn yet. Yarn can be made with many materials, in many thicknesses and colors. Roving can also be used for felting, which is a process involving hot water and shrinking a wool piece down into a smaller, denser piece.
When using fabrics, the artist can use a sewing machine or sew by hand, but the artist needs to understand the properties of each material and how best to join them.

The Acceptance of Fiber Art
Textile and fiber work, including sewing, embroidery, knitting, and crocheting, have always been considered women's work and have been devalued for a long time. During the suffrage movement of the early 1900s, embroidery was highlighted as a fiber art medium for feminist protests. During the 1950s, artists began creating hanging and freestanding fiber works, but it wasn't until Judy Chicago's work that fiber arts really began to be accepted as an artistic medium. Artists took the perception of fiber as women's work and turned their works into fun and liberating works of art. Her most famous work, The Dinner Party, celebrates the accomplishments of 39 important women from history, setting a place at a table for each woman. The work, constructed as a long triangle, incorporates traditional needlepoint and embroidery among other materials. More than 400 people, mostly women, volunteered to assist with aspects of this artwork, and it is still known as the first major feminist artwork.


Knitting, Weaving, and Crocheting
Knitting consists of creating a series of interlocking loops using straight knitting needles that are pointed at one end. The knitter begins by casting on, or creating the first stitches on the needle. A variety of stitches are used; the main stitches are called knit and purl. The basic knitted pattern is called a stocking or stockinette pattern, and the right side looks like a pattern of V shapes.
For weaving, two sets of threads are interlocked in a perpendicular pattern. This can be done by hand or by machine. The lengthwise threads are called the warp and are held stationary on a loom while the other thread (weft) is passed back and forth between them.
Crocheting involves using a stick with a hook at the end, called a crochet hook, and creating stitches to interlock the yarn into a fabric or pattern. With crochet, each stitch is finished before starting the next, whereas in knitting, many stitches are kept open at the same time.

Jewelry as a Medium
Prior to the discovery of precious metals, in prehistoric times humans used bone, shells, antlers, feathers, and pebbles to decorate their bodies. One of the oldest examples of traditional jewelry was discovered in a tomb in Sumer from 2,600 b.c.
The findings included gold pins, amulets, earrings, and a headdress. Evidence was found of Sumerians using techniques such as welding, enameling, stonecutting, and filigree. The tomb of Tutankhamun in Egypt showed mastery of gold and jewelry techniques by the ancient Egyptians. Bracelets, amulets, pendants, earrings, and a large quantity of jewels were found in the tomb, showing a high degree of craftsmanship. Motifs used include the scarab, lotus flower, Horus, eye, serpent, and sphinx, among others. During the Bronze Age, the Minoans in Greece were stamping and cutting gold sheets into beads to form necklaces and decorate clothing. Jewelry making flourished during the Hellenistic period in Greece, and it was used to an even greater extent in ancient Rome. The gold ring became common in ancient Rome, and not just for noblemen. Rings and brooches became widely used in medieval Europe. With a rebirth of classicism, jewelry making reached new heights in the Renaissance era.

Tools and Supplies
Precious metals used for creating jewelry include gold and silver. They are both available in varying purities. 24 karat gold is 24 out of 24 parts gold, and it is also known as pure gold. Fine silver is 99.9% pure silver, whereas sterling silver is at least 92.5% pure silver. Other metals used include brass, which is an alloy of 70% copper and 30% zinc; copper, a bright reddish-orange element; and pewter, a silver-gray alloy of tin, antimony, and copper.
A soldering iron can be used for joining metal parts together. A jewelry artist will use a variety of pliers, saws, and cutters for working with metal, as well as a polisher to finish the piece. A mandrel is used to size and shape a ring; it is a tapered piece of metal that the ring fits onto. Clamps hold the piece steady for the artist to work on it. A loupe is a magnifier used to see the piece in detail. Calipers are used to measure the gauge (thickness) of materials.

Enameling
Enameling involves fusing powdered glass to a surface by heating it to between 750°C and 850°C. When fired, the glass powder melts and turns into a smooth, shiny coating. Enameling is often seen on metal jewelry, but it can also be used on glass and ceramics. It can be applied to gold, copper, silver, and aluminum. Commercially, it is often applied to stainless steel. After it is fired, it is durable and resistant to scratching. The finely ground glass used for enameling is called frit, and various minerals are added for coloring. Different colors of enamels can be mixed to create new colors, and enamel can be transparent, translucent, or opaque. Enameling was used in ancient Egypt for the creation of jewelry, as well as in ancient Greece, ancient Rome, and China. In ancient Rome, enamel was also used on glass.
This image is an example of enamel applied to a copper alloy disk, from between 1290 and 1310. It is a radial pattern with a rose window design.

Soldering and Filigree
Soldering can be done on a clean ceramic tile or fire brick.
The metal to be soldered should be clean and free of oil or grease. Flux is mixed with water and dabbed on the parts where the metal will be joined. The flux is a chemical used to promote soldering. Tiny pieces of solder are placed onto the fluxed seams of the metal with tweezers. A flame is applied, and the piece is heated evenly until the solder melts and the pieces join.
Filigree is a technique of forming metal threads to resemble a lace pattern. Making a filigree piece involves careful and skillful bending of wire. A filigreed metal piece can be simple or complex, consisting of many pieces carefully formed and combined. Before working with the wire and wrapping it, it should first be annealed. Annealing is a process of heating the metal, then cooling it slowly, so it is easier to work with for a specific technique.
This silver ring contains a filigree pattern.

Jewelry Making: Art and Craft
Although art and craft are both thought of as ways to express creativity, the distinction lies in the purpose of the work produced.
Crafts are created with an aesthetic and a functional purpose, whereas art is generally decorative but not functional. Based on this, jewelry's functional and decorative nature can be seen as both an art and a craft. Jewelry makers throughout time have used various techniques to create intricate and beautiful works that show superb craftsmanship as well as artistic inspiration. Jewelry making has followed artistic trends throughout major art eras, and the pieces have been used to adorn important leaders, politicians, and the common citizen.
Jewelry making requires skill and understanding of the materials, but so does working with oil paints or sculpture materials. The line between art and craft has often been blurred, with artists creating decorative pieces with materials usually used for functional crafts.