ASWB: Notes on Professional Relationships, Values, and Ethics

Ethics
The following are ethical issues/concerns involved with selecting a study design:
Research must not lead to harming clients.
Denying an intervention may amount to harm.
Informed consent.
Confidentiality.

The core values of the social work profession, according to the NASW Code of Ethics, are as follows:
Service
Social justice
Dignity and worth of the person
Importance of human relationships
Integrity
Competence

The NASW identifies six purposes of its Code of Ethics: 
(1) Identifying core values fundamental to social work's mission, 
(2) reflecting those core values through a summary of general principles and defining a group of more specific ethical standards for guidance in practicing social work, 
(3) helping social workers consider pertinent factors in the event of ethical dilemmas or conflicting obligations, 
(4) supplying ethical standards for the social work profession's accountability to the public, 
(5) acquainting new social workers with the discipline's values, mission, and ethical principles and standards, and 
(6) defining standards that the social work profession can apply to evaluate whether any social worker's conduct has been unethical. 
This enables the NASW to make decisions about adjudicating complaints filed against members alleging unethical conduct, for which the NASW has established formal procedures. Social workers who subscribe to the NASW Code of Ethics are required to participate in its adjudication proceedings and comply with any sanctions or disciplinary judgments informed by the code, as well as to cooperate in implementing it.

Ethical standards
The NASW identifies six ethical standards categories pertaining to all social workers' professional activities as ethical responsibilities related to the following: (1) to their clients, (2) to their colleagues, (3) in their practice settings, (4) as professionals, (5) to the profession of social work, and (6) to the wider society. Before briefly describing each of these identified standards, the NASW also points out that although some of these are guidelines for professional behavior, which can be enforced, others are 'aspirational' and that persons responsible for reviewing alleged violations must use professional judgment to decide whether/to what degree a standard can be enforced. 

Ethical responsibilities to clients
Commitment to clients:  Under 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Clients,' Standard 1.01 is 'Commitment to Clients.' This standard states that promoting client well-being is social workers' first responsibility, and client interests generally take precedence. It adds, however, that specific legal requirements or overall societal responsibility can sometimes override client loyalty—e.g., legally mandated reporting of child abuse or of threatening harm to others/self by clients—and that social workers must advise clients of this.

Self-determination:  Under the heading of 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Clients,' the NASW Code of Ethics Standard 1.02 is entitled 'Self-Determination.' Self-determination refers to the autonomy of an individual to make decisions and take actions without the permission, influence, consultation, or advice of other people or groups. In this case, it refers to the self-determination of the clients of social workers. This ethical standard states that social workers should not only respect their clients' rights to self-determination, but they should also promote these rights; in addition, they should provide their clients with help in their endeavors toward identifying goals and/or making those goals clearer or more specific. Notwithstanding this ethical responsibility of the social worker to support self-determination in their clients, an additional caveat named in this ethical standard is the statement that if a social worker finds in his or her professional opinion that a client's actions or possible actions present imminent, serious, and anticipatable risk to others or self, the social worker can restrict some client rights to self-determination.

Informed consent:  Social workers must obtain valid informed consent, as appropriate, for providing services to clients in professional relationships. They must inform clients in comprehensible, clear language of their services' purposes, related risks, limits, expenses, and alternatives; client rights to withdraw or refuse consent; and consent time limits. They must offer clients the chance to ask questions. Assuring client comprehension includes providing interpreters and/or translators for ESL clients and detailed oral explanations for illiterate or low-literacy clients. Social workers should inform clients unable to give informed consent according to their comprehension levels, seek appropriate third-party permission, and assure that third-party actions are in clients' best interests and wishes. When clients are involuntarily receiving services, social workers should inform them of the degree to which they have a right to refuse services and of the extent and nature of those services. Social workers must inform clients of the risks and limitations related to providing services through electronic media. They should also secure informed consent from clients before videotaping, audiotaping, or allowing third-party observation of their services to clients.

Competence:  In the NASW Code of Ethics, under Standard 1, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Clients' Standard 1.04 is 'Competence.' Under this standard, the NASW advises that social workers should represent themselves as being competent and provide services only within the limits of their certification, licensure, training, education, supervised work experience, received consultations, and/or other pertinent professional credentials or experience. The NASW further enjoins social workers to deliver services or apply intervention approaches or techniques with which they are unfamiliar only after they have appropriately studied, consulted about, and been trained and supervised in these services by persons who are competent in those practices. In addition, this standard indicates that in any emergent field of professional social work practice wherein no standards have yet been established with general acceptance, social workers should use prudent judgment and obtain suitable training, education, supervision, consultation, and research; they should also take other responsible measures to assure that they protect their clients from being harmed and also to assure that their own work is competently carried out.

Cultural competence and social diversity:  Standard 1, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Clients,' is the first standard area in the NASW Code of Ethics. Under this standard category, Standard 1.05 is entitled 'Cultural Competence and Social Diversity.' The first provision of this standard is that social workers should acknowledge the assets present in every culture and understand culture and the functions it serves in human society and behavior. The second provision is that social workers should know or learn about the cultures of all of their clients and have developed a 'knowledge base' of these cultures and that, by providing services that are culturally sensitive and responsive to individual as well as cultural group differences, be able to demonstrate their cultural competence in service delivery. The third provision is that social workers should seek to understand, and pursue education in, the nature of oppression related to social diversity, including in race, color, ethnicity, national origin, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity/expression, age, religion, immigration status, marital status, political beliefs, and physical or mental disabilities.

Conflicts of interest:  Under the NASW Code of Ethics first standards area, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Clients,' Standard 1.06 is 'Conflicts of Interest.' This standard includes the following: (a) vigilance to and avoidance of conflicts of interest impeding impartiality and professional discretion; informing clients of possible/real conflicts of interest; and taking reasonable actions to resolve these in clients' best interests, which can sometimes require professional relationship termination and indicated referral. (b) Never exploiting others or professional relationships unfairly to advance business, personal, political, or religious motives. (c) Avoiding dual/multiple relationships, concurrent or sequential, that risk client harm or exploitation; or, if such relationships are inevitable, taking measures for client protection and being responsible to establish culturally sensitive, appropriate, and clear boundaries. (d) In-service delivery to family members, couples, or other related clients, clarifying their professional responsibilities to each individual and who are considered clients. Social workers anticipating conflicts of interest, e.g., when testifying in divorce proceedings, child custody cases, etc., should take suitable measures to limit conflicts of interest and clarify their roles with all those involved.

Privacy and confidentiality:  Under the NASW Code of Ethics first standards area, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Clients,' Standard 1.07 is 'Privacy and Confidentiality.' 
(a) Social workers respect client privacy rights; only request clients' private information essential for delivering services, evaluating social work, or conducting research; and protect private information confidentiality. 
(b) With valid client/legal designee consent, social workers may disclose confidential information when indicated. 
(c) Unless for 'compelling' professional purposes, social workers must protect all confidential information procured during professional service. Preventing harm to clients/others is the exception necessitating disclosure. In this case, social workers only disclose directly pertinent information in the smallest amounts required for the indicated purposes. 
(d) To the degree possible, social workers inform clients in advance of disclosure and possible outcomes, regardless of whether through client consent or legal requirement. 
(e) As early as possible in professional relationships and as needed throughout, social workers discuss client confidentiality rights limits and confidentiality's nature with clients and involved others and review instances wherein disclosure may be requested or legally required. (f) When serving groups/families/couples, social workers pursue group agreement regarding individual confidentiality rights and responsibilities to protect others' information and inform participants that they cannot guarantee every individual's compliance.
(g) When conducting group, family, marital, or couples counseling, a social worker should inform these clients of the social worker's own policy, as well their employer's and his or her agency's policy, regarding disclosure by the social worker of confidential client information among the involved individuals. 
(h) Social workers must not disclose confidential information to third-party payers without client authorization.
(i) Social workers should never discuss confidential information in public, semipublic, or any other settings without ensuring privacy. This includes restaurants, waiting rooms, elevators, and hallways. 
(j) Social workers will protect client confidentiality as lawfully allowed during legal proceedings. If a court or other legally authorized entity orders disclosure of privileged or confidential information without client consent and that disclosure could cause client harm, social workers are advised to request that the court withdraw such orders, keep records sealed against public view, or limit those orders as narrowly as possible. 
(k) Social workers must protect client confidentiality when responding to requests from reporters or other members of the press or the media.
(l) Social workers must protect the confidentiality of all written and electronic client records and other sensitive information. This protection includes taking reasonable measures to assure that confidential client records are stored in a secure place and preventing access or availability of client records to others who are not authorized to access them. 
(m) Social workers are enjoined to avoid disclosing identifying client information whenever possible. They should take precautions to keep information electronically transmitted to others confidential. 
(n) Social workers should dispose of and transfer client records so they protect client confidentiality, while also complying with state regulations of both social work licensure and records management. 
(o) Social workers must protect client confidentiality through reasonable precautions in case of the social worker's death, incapacitation, or termination of practice. 
(p) Social workers should never disclose identifying client information for training/teaching reasons without client consent. 
(q) Social workers should never disclose identifying client information to consultants without client consent or 'compelling need.' 
(r) Social workers must also protect deceased clients' confidentiality following these standards.

Access to records:  Under Standard 1, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Clients,' Standard 1.08, 'Access to Records,' provides guidelines for social workers regarding client access to the records a social worker keeps about that client. First, the standard indicates social workers should give their clients 'reasonable' access to records of client history, referrals, and the counseling relationship, sessions, and interactions, etc. However, it also states that if a social worker has reason to believe that records access has the potential to cause the client harm or cause a serious misunderstanding, the social worker should help the client interpret the records and consult with the client about them. Nevertheless, it advises social workers only to limit client access to their records or parts of them in 'exceptional' cases of 'compelling' evidence that serious client harm would ensue from records access. Social workers should document in client records any client records access requests and social worker rationales for withholding any records information. They should also protect confidentiality for others discussed or identified in client records when providing access.

Sexual relationships:  NASW Code of Ethics Standard 1, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Clients,' includes Standard 1.09, 'Sexual Relationships.' Its first two provisions indicate the following:

(a) Under no circumstances should a social worker ever engage in sexual activities or any kind of sexual contact with clients whom they currently serve. This applies not just to forced contact, but also to consensual contact.

(b) Social workers must also avoid sexual activity or contact with relatives, close friends, or others having close personal relationships with their clients whenever any harm to or risk of exploitation of the client could possibly ensue from such contact. Because it can interfere with maintaining the professional counseling relationship and its applicable boundaries, sexual contact or activity with individuals personally close to the client has the ability to cause the client harm. Moreover, it is not the client or the client's relatives or others in close personal relationships with the client who are responsible for establishing culturally sensitive, appropriate, and clear boundaries—it is the social worker.

The third guideline under this standard says

(c) because it has the potential for causing harm to their clients, social workers must avoid sexual activity or sexual contact, not only with current clients

(a) and with those close to current clients

(b), but also with former clients. An additional provision within this guideline is that if a social worker claims 'extraordinary circumstances' can justify any exception to this rule, that social worker—never the former client—is fully responsible to demonstrate that he or she has not intentionally or unintentionally coerced, manipulated, or exploited the former client. The fourth guideline under this standard says

(d) just as a social worker's sexual contact with former clients can cause the client harm and interfere with professional boundaries, conversely, so can delivering clinical services to former sexual partners. Therefore, social workers should not accept individuals with whom they have previously had sexual relationships as their clients.

Physical contact, sexual harassment, and derogatory language:  Under Standard 1, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Clients,' of the NASW Code of Ethics, Standard 1.10 is entitled 'Physical Contact.' It states that social workers should refrain from making physical contact with their clients whenever such contact has any potential for causing psychological harm to the client. As examples, it identifies 'cradling or caressing clients.' When social workers engage in physical contact with clients appropriately—for example, when some specific therapeutic approaches include certain forms of physical contact or when some kinds of contact are found instrumental for building and/or maintaining rapport, trust, and the counseling relationship rather than inhibiting or damaging these—social workers have the responsibility to establish culturally sensitive, appropriate, and clear boundaries regulating that contact. Standard 1.11, 'Sexual Harassment,' prohibits social workers from requesting sexual favors, making sexual solicitations or sexual advances, or other sexually related physical or verbal conduct, all included as sexually harassing clients. Standard 1.12, 'Derogatory Language,' proscribes social workers' using disparaging words in oral or written communications about/to clients and prescribes respectful, accurate communications.

Payment for services:  Under Standard 1, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Clients,' Standard 1.13, 'Payment for Services,' directs social workers to set fees that are commensurate with services provided, to ensure that fees are reasonable and fair, and to consider the client's ability to pay. It additionally warns social workers not to trade professional services for goods or services from clients as payment. The reason is that inappropriate relationship boundaries, exploitation, and conflicts of interest are all potential outcomes of bartering, especially with services. Conditions for exploring and possibly engaging in barter are 'only in very limited circumstances' if it is shown that the client has initiated the arrangement and given informed consent and it is found essential to service provision, an accepted practice among local professionals, and freely negotiated without coercion. If accepting goods or services as payment from clients, social workers are fully responsible to demonstrate that the arrangement will not harm the client or counseling relationship. Also, when clients are entitled to services through the social worker's agency or employer, the social worker must not solicit private fees or other compensation.

Clients who lack decision-making capacity, interruption of services, and termination of services:  
Standard 1 of the NASW Code of Ethics is entitled 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Clients.' Under this standards area, Standard 1.14 is entitled 'Clients Who Lack Decision-Making Capacity.' It states that social workers should take 'reasonable' measures to protect the rights and interests of clients whenever their professional roles include acting on behalf of clients who do not have the capacity for making informed decisions. Making informed decisions would include giving informed consent, which is addressed separately in more detail under Standard 1.03, 'Informed Consent.' Standard 1.15 is entitled 'Interruption of Services.' It states that in cases when professional services are interrupted by death, disability, illness, relocation, or unavailability, the social worker should make 'reasonable efforts' to provide for continuity of services. Standard 1.16 is entitled 'Termination of Services.' This standard has six provisions. The first is that when professional relationships with and services to clients are no longer needed or they no longer meet client needs or interests, social workers should terminate those services.

The NASW Code of Ethics entitles its first standard as 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Clients.' Under this category, Standard 1.16 is entitled 'Termination of Services' and includes six provisions. The fourth of these six provisions is that a social worker should not terminate his or her professional services to a client in order to engage in a sexual, financial, or social relationship with that client. The fifth of these provisions is that if a social worker anticipates that his or her services will be interrupted or terminated, he or she should promptly inform his or her clients of this. In addition, the social worker should pursue the referral, transfer, or continuation of services, depending on the needs and preferences of the clients. The sixth and last provision is that if a social worker will be departing from a particular setting, the social worker should provide clients with suitable options, plus information about the risks and benefits of those options, for the continuation of services they have been receiving.

Ethical responsibilities to colleagues
Respect:  In the NASW Code of Ethics, among six main areas of standards, Standard 2 is entitled 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues.' In this category, the first ethical standard is 2.01, 'Respect.' It states first that social workers should show respect in their treatment of colleagues. This includes fairly and accurately representing their duties, perspectives, and qualifications. Second, it advises that social workers ought to refrain from making unjustified criticisms of their colleagues when communicating with other professionals or with clients. Such unfounded criticism can encompass casting aspersions on a colleague's degree of professional competence or on personal characteristics including race, color, ethnicity, national origin, immigration status, sex, sexual orientation, gender expression or gender identity, age, religion, marital status, political beliefs, and physical or mental disabilities. Third, this ethical standard gives the guidance to NASW members that a social worker should cooperate, not only with other social workers, but also with colleagues who work in related and other professions, whenever their cooperation will contribute to client well-being.

Confidentiality and interdisciplinary collaboration:  Under Standard 2, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues,' NASW Code of Ethics Standard 2.02 is entitled 'Confidentiality.' It states that when their colleagues share confidential information in their professional interactions and relationships, social workers should respect its privacy. It also advises social workers to make sure that these colleagues understand how social workers are obligated to respect confidentiality and any associated exceptions. Standard 2.03, entitled 'Interdisciplinary Collaboration,' states that when social workers participate as members of interdisciplinary teams, they should make use of the social work profession's values, experiences, and perspectives to take part in and make contributions to decisions that affect client well-being. It adds that the ethical and professional responsibilities, of the individual team members and the group, should be defined clearly. Another provision of this ethical standard is that if a team decision triggers ethical considerations for a participating social worker, he or she should try to use indicated channels for resolution, and if this fails, to seek other means compatible with client well-being for addressing them.

Disputes involving colleagues:  In the NASW Code of Ethics under Standard 2, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues,' Standard 2.04 is entitled 'Disputes Involving Colleagues.' This ethical standard includes two provisions: one relating to disputes between or among a social worker's colleagues and another relating to clients in terms of disputes that the social worker may have with his or her colleagues and/or to disputes that the social worker's colleagues may have between or among themselves. Provision (a) advises that when a social worker knows that a colleague and the colleague's employer are having a dispute, the social worker should not exploit this situation to obtain a position—for example, one that becomes available through the colleague's resignation, dismissal, or demotion—or to further the social worker's own interests otherwise. Provision (b) warns social workers not to take advantage of their clients in any disputes the social worker has with colleagues and not to involve clients in any improper conversations about their disputes with colleagues or about other social workers' disputes.

Consultation:  Standard 2, entitled 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues,' of the NASW's Code of Ethics includes Standard 2.05, which is entitled 'Consultation.' The first provision of this ethical standard states that whenever it is in the best interests of their clients, social workers should avail themselves of the counsel and advice of their colleagues. The second provision of this ethical standard advises that social workers are obligated to obtain current information with regard to the competencies and areas of expertise of their colleagues before requesting consultations from them. By staying informed, social workers can determine which other professionals can best advise them and offer the most relevant, up-to-date, and accurate opinions and information. This provision also cautions that social workers should only ask for consultation from those colleagues who have demonstrated their knowledge, competence, and expertise regarding the topic of the consultation. The third provision warns social workers to be careful to disclose the smallest amounts of information needed for consultation purposes when they consult about their clients with colleagues.

Referral for services:  The NASW Code of Ethics addresses referrals under Standard 2, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues,' in Standard 2.06, entitled 'Referral for Services.' The first provision of this standard is that whenever a social worker believes that he or she is not achieving reasonable progress or not being effective with a client and additional services are needed or another professional's specialized expertise or knowledge is required to serve the client's needs fully, the social worker should refer the client. The second provision enjoins social workers who refer clients to others also to take suitable measures to transfer the responsibility for providing services in an organized fashion. Ensuring that the transfer is an orderly process is important to promote the continuity of care. This provision also advises that social workers referring clients to other service providers first obtain client consent and then disclose all relevant information to those professionals. The third provision prohibits social workers from receiving or giving payment for referrals if the referring social worker did not provide any professional service.

Sexual relationships  and sexual harassment:  Standard 2, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues,' includes two ethical standards addressing sexual involvement. Ethical standard 2.07, 'Sexual Relationships,' in its first provision, warns social workers who serve as educators and/or supervisors not to involve themselves in sexual contact or activity with students, supervisees, trainees, or other colleagues when they wield professional authority over them. This ethical standard also cautions in its second provision that anytime a conflict of interest is a possibility, social workers should eschew involvement in sexual relationships with colleagues. This provision states in addition that if a social worker does become engaged in a sexual relationship with a colleague, or even anticipates that this will occur, then that social worker has the responsibility to transfer professional duties as needed to prevent such a conflict of interest. Standard 2.08, 'Sexual Harassment,' prohibits social workers from engaging in any physical or verbal behavior that is sexual in nature, including sexual solicitations, advances, or requests for sexual favors involving their colleagues, students, supervisees, or trainees.

Impairment of colleagues:  The NASW Code of Ethics addresses social workers' interactions with colleagues under Standard 2, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues.' In this area, Standard 2.09, entitled 'Impairment of Colleagues,' addresses the issue of impairment. The first provision of this ethical standard offers the guidance that if a social worker knows directly (i.e., not through third parties or hearsay) that another social work professional's effectiveness in professional practice is being impaired by mental health problems, substance abuse disorders, psychosocial distress, or personal problems, then the social worker with that knowledge should consult with the colleague whenever possible and help him or her to take actions to remediate the cause(s) of the impairment. The second provision follows up on the first one: If a social worker believes that impairment is interfering with a colleague's effectiveness in practice and also believes the colleague has not taken sufficient measures to address this, the social worker should take action through proper avenues offered by NASW, other professional organizations, regulatory or licensing entities, agencies, and employers.

Incompetence of colleagues:  Among six main areas, NASW Standard 2 addresses 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues.' Under this area, Standard 2.10 is entitled 'Incompetence of Colleagues.' A social worker may be incompetent for various reasons, including lack of adequate professional education; lack of sufficient training; lack of continuing education or professional development resulting in not keeping current in the field; lack of sufficient work experience; inappropriate behaviors; or inherent deficits in interpersonal skills, communication skills, intelligence, sound judgment, common sense, and/or other requirements of the profession despite having the proper education, preparation, training, and experience. This standard advises social workers having direct knowledge of incompetence in a social work colleague first to consult with the colleague when possible and to give the colleague assistance in taking action to remediate the incompetence. This standard also tells social workers who believe that another social worker is incompetent and has not taken sufficient action to address this, to take action themselves through proper channels that NASW, other professional organizations, their employers, agencies, and regulatory and licensing entities have established.

Unethical conduct:  Interactions with colleagues are addressed under NASW Code of Ethics Standard 2, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues.' Standard 2.11, 'Unethical Conduct of Colleagues,' first directs social workers to take sufficient steps to prevent, discourage, reveal, and correct any unethical conduct by their colleagues that they observe. It also says social workers should have knowledge of accepted policies and procedures for addressing ethics complaints on the federal, state, and local levels. This knowledge includes not only laws, statutes, and regulations, but also policies and procedures established by NASW, other professional organizations, regulatory and licensure groups, agencies, and employers. If a social worker believes a colleague has behaved unethically, this standard says that he or she should first discuss this with the colleague when possible, if productive dialogue is probable. It further advises that when needed, social workers finding colleague actions unethical should also act by contacting a state regulatory agency, licensure board, NASW inquiry committee, another professional ethics group, or through other applicable formal channels. This ethical standard also recommends helping and defending colleagues wrongfully accused of unethical behavior.

Ethical responsibilities to practice settings
Supervision and consultation:  The NASW Code of Ethics Standard 3 is entitled 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities in Practice Settings.' Its first Standard is 3.01, 'Supervision and Consultation.' The first provision of this ethical standard states that when social workers supervise others or consult with others, they must possess the knowledge and skills required for properly supervising or consulting and that when they do, they should perform these activities solely within the limits of their knowledge and competencies. The second provision of this ethical standard informs social workers that when they perform supervision or consultation, they have the responsibility of establishing culturally sensitive, appropriate, and clearly defined boundaries within the supervisory or consultative interaction or relationship. The third provision issues a warning to social workers who supervise others to avoid engaging in any dual or multiple relationships with supervisees if there is any possibility of harm to the supervisee or a possibility of risk for exploitation of the supervisee. The fourth provision enjoins supervising social workers to show respect and fairness in evaluating supervisee performance.
Education and training:  The third of the NASW six main standards areas in its Code of Ethics is Standard 3, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities in Practice Settings.' Standard 3.02 is entitled 'Education and Training.' This standard contains four provisions. The first provision of this ethical standard provides the guidance that when a social worker serves as a trainer, a field instructor, or any other kind of an educator of social work students, that social worker should deliver instruction that has as its basis the most up-to-date knowledge and information available within the social work profession. In addition, this provision advises social workers to deliver instruction only in areas in which they are knowledgeable and competent enough to teach them. The second provision of four within this ethical standard enjoins social workers who work as field instructors or educators of social work students to apply respect and fairness in the ways in which they conduct performance evaluations of the work that their students do during or after instructing them.

Client records:  NASW's Code of Ethics addresses this topic under Standard 3, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities in Practice Settings,' with Standard 3.04, 'Client Records.' The first provision of this ethical standard enjoins social workers to take reasonable measures to assure that documentation reflects the provided services and is otherwise accurate in clients' records. The second provision of this ethical standard reminds social workers to provide documentation in records that is both timely and sufficient for facilitating current service delivery and for assuring continuity in future services provided to clients. The third provision in this ethical standard informs social workers that the documentation they furnish in client records should only include information related directly to the delivery of services to the client in order to protect the client's privacy to the degree that is proper and feasible. The fourth provision in this ethical standard instructs social workers to enable reasonable access to client records after service termination, including storing and maintaining records for the durations specified by pertinent contracts or state statutes.

Billing and client transfer:  Standard 3, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities in Practice Settings,' of the NASW Code of Ethics includes Standard 3.05, 'Billing.' It states that social workers are expected to set and sustain practices in billing that identify the individual who provided services in the practice setting and that reflect accurately the extent and nature of services provided. Ethical standard 3.06 is entitled 'Client Transfer.' Its first provision addresses situations wherein clients receiving services from colleagues or other agencies contact a social worker seeking services. It advises that before agreeing to provide services, the social worker should consider the requesting client's needs carefully. To prevent or limit potential conflict and/or confusion, the social worker should discuss with prospective clients the nature of the existing service relationship and potential risks, benefits, and other implications of establishing a relationship with a new practitioner. The second provision recommends that when applicable, the social worker should discuss with a new client whether or not it is in the client's best interests for the social worker to consult with his or her previous service provider(s).

Administration:  Under Standard 3, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities in Practice Settings,' Standard 3.07 is entitled 'Administration.' The first provision of this ethical standard advises social work administrators advocate for required resources inside and outside their agencies for meeting client needs. Its second provision directs social workers to advocate for fair, open resource allocation procedures. This includes developing a nondiscriminatory procedure founded on suitable principles and applied consistently for resource allocation when it is impossible to meet all client needs with the resources available. In its third provision, this ethical standard requires that social worker administrators should take reasonable actions to make sure that sufficient organizational or agency resources are made available for furnishing proper supervision of staff members. The fourth provision of this ethical standard advises social work administrators to take reasonable measures for assuring that the work environment under their responsibility is compliant with the NASW Code of Ethics; it promotes employee compliance with the Code of Ethics; and it advises for removing any organizational conditions impeding, violating, or discouraging this compliance.

Continuing education and staff development and commitments to employers:  'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities in Practice Settings' is Standard 3 of the NASW Code of Ethics. Standard 3.08, entitled 'Continuing Education and Staff Development,' advises social work administrators and supervisors to take realistic actions to obtain or offer, for all staff under their responsibility, ongoing development and education that cover current information and emergent developments associated with social work ethics and practice. Ethical standard 3.09 is entitled 'Commitments to Employers.' It contains seven provisions. The first of these provisions states that, in general, social workers should fulfill the commitments they make to their employing organizations or agencies and employers. The second of these provisions requires that social workers should endeavor to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of the services they provide, and social workers should also work to improve the policies and procedures of their employing agencies. The third of the seven provisions enjoins social workers to act reasonably to assure their employers have awareness of social workers' ethical responsibilities as defined in the NASW Code of Ethics and also of what these responsibilities imply for practicing social work.

The fourth provision offers social workers the guidance that they should not permit any interference with their ethical social work practices by any administrative orders, regulations, policies, or procedures issued by their employing organizations. This provision moreover advises social workers to engage in reasonable actions to assure that their employing organization's practices comply with the NASW Code of Ethics. The fifth provision adds the recommendation that social workers actively work to eliminate and prevent discrimination in employment policies and practices and work assignments issued by their employing organizations. The sixth provision advises social workers to identify and select only organizations applying fair personnel practices to assign student field experience placements and accept employment. The seventh and last provision of this ethical standard prescribes diligent stewardship of employing organization resources by social workers, including never using funds for unintended reasons, never misappropriating funds, and conserving funds appropriately and judiciously.

Labor-Management disputes:  Standard 3 of the NASW Code of Ethics' six standards areas is entitled 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities in Practice Settings,' and it includes Standard 3.10, entitled 'Labor-Management Disputes.' The first provision of this ethical standard states that social workers are ethically able to participate in organized actions for the purpose of enhancing working conditions and client services in the social work profession. Participation includes forming and joining labor unions and participating in their activities. The second provision specifically addresses disputes between labor unions and employer management personnel. It points out that the ethical principles, ethical standards, and values of the social work profession should guide all actions of social workers engaged in labor strikes, job actions, or labor-management disputes. Although conceding that social workers have 'reasonable differences of opinion' about the priorities of their professional duties during job actions, labor strikes, or strike threats, this provision also guides them to analyze pertinent issues and their potential effects on clients carefully before they decide what they will do.

Ethical responsibilities as professionals

Competence:  
In the NASW Code of Ethics, Standard 4 is entitled 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities as Professionals.' The first ethical standard in this area is 4.01, entitled 'Competence.' Its first provision states that the basis for social workers to accept employment or responsibilities should be only their current competence as is required or their intention of obtaining it. The second provision of this ethical standard urges social workers to endeavor to attain and maintain proficiency in professional practice and professional function performance. It advises social workers to stay up to date with emergent information related to social work and to examine this information critically. This provision also prescribes that social workers engage in continuing education that pertains to the practice of social work and social work ethics and that they review the professional social work literature routinely. The third provision of this ethical standard informs social workers that their practices should be based upon accepted knowledge that is applicable to social work and social work ethics. This knowledge includes empirically derived findings.

Discrimination; private conduct; and dishonesty, fraud, and deception:  
Although other areas of the NASW Code of Ethics also indirectly address discrimination, e.g., ensuring comprehension through interpretation/translation to surmount language or literacy barriers for informed consent (Standard 1.03), avoiding discrimination by learning about and seeking to understand social diversity and oppression (Standard 1.05), not voicing discriminatory comments to colleagues as a matter of respect (Standard 2.01) or they directly advise eradicating and preventing discrimination (Standard 6.04); under Standard 4, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities as Professionals,' Standard 4.02 is specifically entitled 'Discrimination,' and it prohibits practicing, enabling, allowing, or participating in any kind of discrimination based on race, color, ethnicity, national origin, immigration status, age, marital status, sex, sexual orientation, gender expression or identity, religion, political belief, or physical or mental disabilities. Standard 4.03, 'Private Conduct,' states that social workers must not allow their private behaviors to impede their capacities to discharge their professional duties. Standard 4.04, 'Dishonesty, Fraud, and Deception,' prohibits social workers from associating with, allowing, or participating in any fraudulent, dishonest, or deceptive practices.

Impairment:  
The NASW Code of Ethics addresses the ethical professional behavior of social workers under Standard 4, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities as Professionals.' This area includes Standard 4.05, titled 'Impairment.' Although social workers' responsibilities regarding impairment in colleagues is covered by Standard 2.09, 'Impairment of Colleagues' under Standard 2, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues,' Standard 4.05 focuses on social workers' ethical responsibilities related to their own impairment. The first provision of this standard warns social workers not to permit their professional performance and judgment, or the best interests of clients or others for whom they are professionally responsible, to be compromised by their own mental health, substance abuse, psychosocial, legal, or personal problems. The second provision in this ethical standard advises that if social workers' personal, psychosocial, legal, mental health, or substance abuse problems do impede their professional performance and judgment, they should promptly request consultation and take whatever remedial steps are needed to protect clients and others by modifying workloads, terminating practice, and/or pursuing professional help.

Misrepresentation:  
Standard 4, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities as Professionals,' in the NASW Code of Ethics contains Standard 4.06, 'Misrepresentation.' Within this ethical standard, the first provision guides social workers to distinguish clearly between what they say and what they do as representatives of the social work profession, professional social work organizations, or their employing agencies versus what they say and do as private individuals. The second provision of this ethical standard prescribes that social workers correctly represent the authorized and official positions of professional social work organizations when they are speaking on behalf of these organizations. Under this ethical standard, the third provision is that when social workers represent their own professional credentials, qualifications, competence, education, and affiliations; the services they provide; or the outcomes they intend their services to attain, they must assure the accuracy of these representations. In addition, this provision enjoins social workers to claim only the pertinent professional credentials that they really have and moreover to correct any misrepresentations or inaccurate representations made by others regarding those credentials.

Solicitations and acknowledging credit:  
Prospective clients of social workers often encounter a variety of challenges, which renders them vulnerable to being coerced, manipulated, or unduly influenced. Therefore, the NASW Code of Ethics provides in Standard 4.07, entitled 'Solicitations,' under Standard 4, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities as Professionals,' that social workers should refrain from making any unrequested solicitation of these individuals. This ethical standard includes a second provision that, in addition, social workers should keep from soliciting clients for their consent to use the clients' past statements as testimonial endorsements. This provision also proscribes social workers from soliciting testimonial endorsements directly from current or previous clients and also from other individuals who are more susceptible than normal to being unduly influenced owing to their specific situations or circumstances. Standard 4.08, 'Acknowledging Credit,' provides that social workers should only take credit and responsibility as contributors, authors, or performers of work they have really contributed to or done. It also provides that social workers should acknowledge other people's work and contributions honestly.

Ethical responsibilities to the social work profession
Integrity of the profession:  Standard 5 of the NASW Code of Ethics is entitled 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to the Social Work Profession.' Within this standards area, Standard 5.01 is entitled 'Integrity of the Profession.' The first provision of this ethical standard states that social workers should work to promote high standards of practice in their profession and to maintain them. The second provision of this ethical standard is that social workers should not only uphold, but also further, the mission, values, ethics, and knowledge of their profession. It also recommends that social workers should engage in suitable research, study, responsible criticism of their profession and active discussion about it to protect the integrity of the profession and to improve upon this integrity as well. The third of five provisions within this ethical standard gives the advice that social workers should make contributions of their professional expertise and their time to activities that further the respect of others for the integrity, competence, and value of the profession of social work.
In its third of five provisions, Standard 5.01, entitled Integrity of the 'Profession,' under Standard 5, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to the Social Work Profession' of the NASW Code of Ethics, recommends that social workers should contribute to activities advancing respect for the social work profession's competence, value, and integrity. It also offers several examples of such activities to accomplish this goal. These include participating in professional social work organizations, making presentations in their communities, giving testimony before legislative committees, conducting research in their field, providing consultations to other professionals in social work and related disciplines, providing services, and teaching. The fourth provision is for social workers to share their knowledge with colleagues and to contribute to the social work profession's knowledge base relative to its ethics, research, and practice. These include sharing knowledge at professional conferences and meetings and contributing to the profession's research literature. The fifth provision of this ethical standard enjoins social workers to take actions to prevent any unqualified and/or unauthorized social work practice.

Evaluation and research:  'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to the Social Work Profession' is the title of Standard 5 among six main standards areas in the NASW Code of Ethics. Standard 5.02, 'Evaluation and Research,' contains 16 provisions. Provision 
(a) is that all social workers should evaluate and monitor practice interventions, program implementation, and policies. Provision 
(b) is that social workers should contribute to the development of knowledge by facilitating and promoting research and evaluation. Provision 
(c) says that social workers should use evidence from research and evaluation fully in their professional practices, stay up to date about emergent knowledge pertinent to social work, and critically examine that knowledge. Provision 
(d) advises all social workers to consult institutional review boards as is indicated, to adhere to guidelines that have been established in order to protect the participants in their research and evaluation, and to consider with care all the potential consequences of the research or evaluation that they conduct or in which they are involved.
Provision 
(e) enjoins social workers who are conducting evaluations or research to procure written, voluntary, informed consent as is indicated from those who will be participating. Obtaining such consent is further defined in this provision as requiring social workers not to induce individuals unduly to participate and not to suggest or actually engage in penalizing or depriving them for refusing to participate. Social workers are also reminded to procure this consent with due respect for the privacy, dignity, and well-being of the participants. The benefits, risks, duration, extent, and nature of the participation is information that social workers should disclose when requesting informed consent. Provision 
(f) addresses participants incapable of providing informed consent. In these cases, social workers should give prospective participants suitable explanations, obtain whatever consent they are capable of understanding and giving, and then procure official written consent from authorized proxies.
Provision 
(g) prohibits social workers from conducting and/or designing evaluation or research without consent procedures (e.g., some archival research or naturalistic observation) unless justified by responsible, rigorous review for its educational, scientific, or applied value and unless equally efficacious alternatives with consent are impracticable. Provision 
(h) requires social workers to notify participants of their right to withdraw from research or evaluation without penalties at any time. Provision 
(i) accords social workers responsibility for assuring that participants have the indicated support services available. Provision 
(j) advises social workers to protect evaluation and research participants against undue mental and/or physical deprivation, distress, danger, or harm. 
(k) limits social workers' evaluating services to discussing gathered information only with concerned professionals and only for professional purposes.
(l) enjoins social workers to assure participants and their data confidentiality or anonymity. This includes informing participants of confidentiality measures and limits and times for any destruction of research data records.
(m) says that unless formal, voluntary, written, informed consent has first been secured authorizing disclosure, social workers should leave out personally identifying information of participants in evaluation and research when they report results, to protect participants' confidentiality.  
(n) requires social workers to accurately report all research and evaluation results. It cautions them not to falsify or fabricate any findings, and if errors are found in data after publication, to use standard publication procedures to correct these. Provision 
(o) warns social workers conducting research or evaluation to be vigilant for, and prevent, dual or multiple relationships with participants and to prevent conflicts of interest. It also advises social workers that if a possible or actual conflict of interest emerges, they should notify participants and take actions to resolve it with participant interests as the priority. 
(p) instructs social workers to educate themselves, their colleagues, and their students regarding responsible research practices.

Ethical responsibilities to the broader society
Social welfare, public participation, and public emergencies:  NASW Code of Ethics Standard 6, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to the Broader Society,' contains four specific ethical standards. The first is Standard 6.01, 'Social Welfare.' It states the belief that all social workers ought to work to foster 'the general welfare of society.' This includes societal welfare on the local, state, national, and global levels, and it also refers to the development of human environments, communities, groups, and individual people. In order to realize social justice, this ethical standard says that social workers are responsible for supporting cultural, social, economic, and political institutions and values that are congruent with this aim. It also holds social workers responsible for helping to meet fundamental human needs through advocating for living conditions that further this goal. Standard 6.02, 'Public Participation,' recommends that social workers ought to shape social institutions and policies to facilitate informed public participation. Standard 6.03, 'Public Emergencies,' states that in the event of public emergencies, social workers should supply appropriate professional services as much as is possible.

Social and political action:  Within Standard 6, 'Social Workers' Ethical Responsibilities to the Broader Society' of the NASW Code of Ethics, Standard 6.04, 'Social and Political Action,' includes four provisions. The first of these provides that in order for all people to fulfill their fundamental human needs and also achieve full development, social workers have the responsibility of taking social and political actions that promote assuring that everybody has equal access to the opportunities, resources, services, and employment that they need. In addition, this provision advises social workers to be aware of how their practices are affected by political factors. It also recommends that pursuant to this awareness, social workers ought to promote social justice and fulfill fundamental human needs by advocating for changes in legislation and policy that enable the improvement of social conditions toward these ends. The second provision in this ethical standard makes the recommendation that social workers accord especial attention to oppressed, exploited, disadvantaged, and vulnerable groups and individuals and do this as part of taking actions that extend opportunities and choices for all people.

Among four provisions, the third states that the responsibilities of social workers to contribute to respect for social and cultural diversity, in America and worldwide, by furthering conditions conducive to such respect. This provision also avers that social workers are responsible for supporting the increase of cultural resources and knowledge; advocating for institutions demonstrating culturally competent practices; supporting practices and policies respecting differences among people; and furthering policies that affirm social justice and equity for, and protect the rights of, all people. The fourth provision in this ethical standard prescribes that social workers are expected to engage in actions that eradicate and/or prevent anyone from exploiting, dominating, and/or discriminating against any class, group, or individual based on race, color, ethnicity, national origin, immigration status, age, marital status, sex, sexual orientation, gender expression or identity, religion, political belief, or physical or mental disabilities.

Values underlying social work practice with groups
The following are the values underlying social work practice with groups:
Dignity and work of every individual.
All people have a right and a need to realize their full potential.
Every individual has basic rights and responsibilities.
The social work group acts out democratic values and promotes shared decision making.
Every individual has the right of self-determination in setting and achieving goals.
Positive change is made possible by honest, open, and meaningful interaction.

Problematic treatment models for gays and lesbians
Problematic treatment models for practice with gays and lesbians are discussed below:
The moral model for treatment is religiously oriented and views homosexuality as sinful.
The medical model in some forms views homosexuality as a mental illness.
Reparative or conversion psychotherapy focuses on changing a person's sexual orientation to heterosexual. Traditional mental health disciplines view this type of treatment as unethical and as having no empirical base.

Values of community organization practice
The values of community organization practice are described as follows:
Working with, not for clients, and in so doing, enhancing their participatory skills.
Developing leadership, particularly the ability to foresee and act on problems.
Strengthening communities in order that they are better able to deal with future problems.
Redistributing resources in order to enhance the resources of the disadvantaged.
Planning changes in systematic and scientific ways.
Rational problem-solving process: studying the problem, defining it, considering possible solutions, creating a plan, then implementing and evaluating the plan.
Advancing the interests of the disadvantaged in order for them have a voice in the process of distribution of social resources.

Therapeutic relationships
The roles of the therapeutic relationship in the various approaches to practice are as follows:

- Crisis Intervention
- The relationship remains reality based in the face of the client's often intense attachment. Regression is discouraged even as the crisis evokes a sense of helplessness.
- The worker's role is based on expertise; it is authoritative and directive.
- The client is encouraged to be active, to be reality oriented, and to work toward finding new methods of coping with crisis.
- Use of the relationship as a corrective experience is not emphasized. There is a minimal focus on transference/ countertransference.

- Behavioral Modification
- The relationship is warm, empathic, and facilitating.
- The relationship is not the focus nor is it used as part of the treatment.

- Cognitive Therapy
- Worker is teacher, ally, coach
- Worker is active, directive, didactic

- Task-Centered
- The relationship is not an objective in itself, but is a means of augmenting and supporting problem solving. Transference/ countertransference aspects are minimized.
- Worker expects that client will work on agreed upon tasks and activities to resolve problems, and also provides acceptance, respect, and understanding.
- Collaborative relationship. Worker seeks client's input at all stages. Client is consumer and worker is the authority with expertise who works on the client's behalf.

- Systems Theory
- Depending on the problem and target of change, the relationship may be supportive, facilitative, collaborative, or adversarial. The worker may intervene on behalf of the client with individuals, the social support network, or the larger system.
- The relationship offers feedback to the client and to other systems.- Ecological/Life model
- The worker's relationship with the client is based on mutuality, trust, and authenticity.
- Depending on the goal of the intervention, the worker/client relationship may be supportive, collaborative, or adversarial.

- Family Systems theory
- The worker interacts in the 'here and now' with the family in relation to current problems.
- Worker is a consultant to the family.

- The role differs according to school of thought:
- Structural—dysfunctional interaction is actively challenged
- Strategic and Systemic—worker is very active
- Milan School—male/female clinicians are co-therapists; a team observes from behind a one-way mirror, consults and directs their co-therapists with the clients
- Psychodynamic—worker facilitates self-reflection and understanding of multi-generational dynamics, conflicts
- Satir—Worker models caring, acceptance, love, compassion, nurturance in order to help clients face fears and increase openness

- Narrative therapy
- Worker is co-constructor of new narratives.
- The relationship is a partnership; authority of therapist is minimized. Partnership does not use techniques that result in clients feeling coerced or manipulated.
- Relationship seeks and is an agent of client empowerment. Worker offers an optimistic, future-oriented perspective that builds on client's abilities and strengths in moving toward change. Emphasizes client's possibilities, strengths, resources.
- Worker guides therapeutic conversations to create new possibilities, fresh options, and opportunities to reframe the client's realities.- Treating children
- Worker as therapist—provides a safe environment in which worker can follow child's lead, show child acceptance, create environment for free expression
- Worker as advocate
- Worker as case manager, care coordinator
- Worker as protective service worker
- Worker as adoption and foster care specialist
- Worker as school guidance counselor- Geriatric Social Work
- Individual, couple, or multi-generational family therapist
- Case manager
- Advocate
- Care planning—working with older adult and/or her/his children to determine level of care needed and options
- Social worker for institution—in this role worker may experience conflict in defining who is client and whose needs have precedence (institution or individual)
- Guardian for older adult who the court has declared mentally incompetent or conservator for older adult who the court has declared incompetent to handle her/his own financial affairs
- Educator
- Group therapist or leader
- Program planner- Maltreated/traumatized children
- The worker is to establish trust and a working relationship with the family and built parental self esteem.
- Treatment issues include the parents confusing the worker's clinical role with the role of child protective services and the parents viewing the clinician as a hostile part of the legal system, rather than as a trusted helper.
- Communication can be inhibited by the perception of coercion, which can also limit the treatment's effectiveness. Both parent and child may become unwilling to reveal potentially damaging facts.
- The worker should openly discuss mandated reporting obligations and responsibility to inform child protective services.- Trauma-Based social work practice
- For clients with PTSD, the worker is a protective presence. The worker guides the pace of treatment in order to avoid flooding the client with too much affect and traumatic memories that would promote regression. The worker creates an emotionally safe therapeutic space in which to remember and process the trauma.
- For clients who have experienced domestic violence, the worker may be therapist, case manager, court-based victim's advocate, or broker to obtain services.

Positive therapeutic relationship
The characteristics of the worker and needs of the client necessary to establish a positive therapeutic relationship are as follows:
- Worker's characteristics—non-possessive warmth and concern, genuineness, appropriate empathy, nonjudgmental acceptance, optimism regarding prospects for change, objectivity, professional competence, ability to communicate with client, and self-awareness. Self-disclosure used only purposefully and for client's benefit.
- Client needs—hope and courage to undertake change process; motivated to change; trust in worker's interest and skill; to be dealt with as an individual and not a case, personality type, or category; to express self; to make one's own choices; to change at one's own pace

Confidentiality
Social work privilege does not have the same force as that of attorneys and clergy. Unlike clergy and attorneys, social workers may be compelled to testify in court under certain circumstances. Organizational policies should reflect the expectation of confidentiality:
Records must be secured and locked.
Policies should be in place that ensure that records not be left where unauthorized persons are able to read them.
Computerized records should be secured with the same attention given to written records (hard copies).
Agencies must provide spaces that permit private conversations so that conversations about clients can be held where they cannot be overheard.

Informed consent
A client may provide consent for the worker to share information with family members, or with other professionals or agencies for purposes of referral. When the client provides this consent, s/he has reason to expect that shared information is in her/his best interest, and designed to improve her/his situation.

State mandates to report child abuse
The implications for the worker of state mandates to report child abuse are explained below:
Every state in the U.S. has laws that mandate that social workers report the mere suspicion of child abuse to the appropriate authorities.
A good faith report gives the worker immunity from civil or criminal liability if the report is not verified as social workers cannot be found liable for following the law.
Informing clients of the worker's decision to make a report is determined situationally, particularly if there is a concern of the client's violent reaction to self or others.

Reporting sexual abuse
The following are particular concerns when reporting incidents or suspicions of sexual abuse:
Perpetrators of these crimes can be highly motivated to obtain retractions and may threaten or use violence to do so.
A major concern in developing immediate and long term strategies for protection and treatment is the role of the non-abusing parent and her/his ability to protect the child.
The victim may be safer if the worker does not notify the family when making the report.
Great care must be taken by the worker with these cases.

Reporting that client is a danger
The following are circumstances under which a social worker must report that a client is a danger to self or others:
The client's mental state is such that s/he may deliberately or accidentally cause harm to self.
The client makes a direct threat to harm another person and there is a reasonable possibility that s/he can carry out the threat.
Duty to warn: All mental health professionals have a duty to warn individuals who are threatened. This principle was established by the Tarasoff Decision (Tarasoff vs. Regents of University of California, 1976).

Confidentiality if worker is sued for malpractice
The implications for confidentiality if a social worker is sued for malpractice are as follows:
- A worker who is sued for malpractice may reveal information discussed by clients.- The worker should aim to limit the discussion of the content of clinical discussions to those statements needed to support an effective defense.

Liability
Liability for social workers is as follows:
Clients can sue social workers for malpractice.
The chain of liability extends from the individual worker to supervisory personnel to the director and then to the board of directors of a nonprofit agency.
Most agencies carry malpractice insurance, which usually protects individual workers, however, workers may also carry personal liability and malpractice insurance.
Supervisors can be named as parties in a malpractice suit as they share vicarious liability for the activities of their supervisees.

Lesser eligibility
This concept asserts that welfare payments should not be higher than the lowest paying job in society and derives from Elizabethan Poor Law. It suggests that economic and wage issues underlie the size of benefits and the availability of welfare. Some believe it is a way to control labor and maintain incentives for workers to accept low-paying or undesirable jobs that they might otherwise reject.

Important terms
Incremental change – Small changes built on each other. An example is the passing of Medicare, followed by the acceptance of Medicaid.
Putative father – The alleged father of a child born outside of marriage.

Socioeconomic status
– SES is determined by occupation, education, and income of the head of a household.

Primary prevention – Intervention begun before any evidence of the onset of a problem (parent education programs are an example).
Secondary prevention – Early detection and treatment of a problem.
Tertiary prevention – Treatment in the acute phase of a problem.
Mainstreaming or normalization – Including children with special needs in regular classrooms, while continuing to give them special services.
Juvenile status offense – A crime that has no equivalent in the adult criminal code that can only be committed by children. Examples include truancy, running away, etc.