Political Science 101 POLS: Comparative Politics - Institutions Parliamentary vs. Presidential Systems Unitary vs. Federal Separation of Powers Judicial Review

1. What This Is & Why It Matters

Institutions refer to the rules, norms, and structures that govern the behavior of individuals and groups within a political system. Understanding institutions is crucial in political science because they shape the distribution of power, influence policy outcomes, and determine the likelihood of democratic stability. Without grasping the intricacies of institutions, it's impossible to explain why some democracies collapse, while others endure.

Consider the recent example of the United States' response to the COVID-19 pandemic. President Biden's administration relied heavily on executive orders and emergency declarations to implement policies, bypassing Congress in the process. This highlights the importance of understanding the informal powers of the presidency and how they interact with formal institutions.

2. Essential Thinkers, Concepts & Models

• Montesquieu: Argued that the separation of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches is essential for preventing the concentration of power and protecting individual liberties. His ideas still underpin the U.S. Constitution.
• Locke: Developed the social contract theory, which posits that individuals enter into a contract with the government to protect their natural rights. Locke's ideas underpin the Declaration of Independence and continue to influence modern democratic theory.
• Bagehot: Introduced the concept of the "efficient secret" in parliamentary systems, where the prime minister's power is derived from their ability to maintain the confidence of the legislature. Bagehot's ideas remain relevant in understanding the dynamics of parliamentary systems.
• Weber: Developed the concept of bureaucratic authority, which highlights the importance of formal rules and procedures in maintaining the legitimacy of institutions. Weber's ideas continue to shape modern administrative theory.
• Duverger's Law: States that the type of electoral system used in a country will determine the number of parties that can realistically compete. Duverger's Law remains a crucial concept in understanding the relationship between electoral systems and party systems.
• Separation of Powers: A fundamental concept in constitutional design, which aims to prevent the concentration of power and protect individual liberties. The separation of powers is a key feature of presidential systems, but it can also be found in parliamentary systems.
• Unitary vs. Federal Systems: Unitary systems have a centralized government, while federal systems divide power between a central government and regional authorities. Understanding the differences between these two systems is essential for analyzing the distribution of power in a country.
• Judicial Review: The power of the judiciary to declare laws and government actions unconstitutional. Judicial review is a key feature of constitutional systems and plays a crucial role in protecting individual rights and limiting government power.

3. Step-by-Step 'Political Analysis'

1. Define the research question: Identify the specific institution or set of institutions to be analyzed, and formulate a clear research question.
2. Gather data: Collect relevant data on the institution(s) in question, including historical examples, case studies, and statistical analysis.
3. Compare cases: Analyze the institution(s) in question across different countries or contexts, highlighting similarities and differences.
4. Test a hypothesis: Develop a hypothesis based on the data and compare it to the existing literature, using statistical analysis or other methods to test its validity.
5. Draw conclusions: Based on the analysis, draw conclusions about the institution(s) in question, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses, and implications for policy and practice.

4. Common Student Mistakes

• Misconception: "The separation of powers is only found in presidential systems."
• The right view: While the separation of powers is a key feature of presidential systems, it can also be found in parliamentary systems, such as the United Kingdom, where the monarch serves as head of state, but the prime minister wields significant power.
• Misconception: "Judicial review is only used in the United States."
• The right view: Judicial review is a key feature of constitutional systems around the world, including the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia, where the judiciary plays a crucial role in protecting individual rights and limiting government power.
• Misconception: "Unitary systems are always more efficient than federal systems."
• The right view: While unitary systems can be more efficient in some respects, federal systems offer greater protection for regional autonomy and diversity, and can be more effective in addressing regional disparities.

5. Exam/Essay Tips

• Multiple-choice questions: Be careful to distinguish between similar-sounding concepts, such as "separation of powers" and "checks and balances."
• Free-response questions: Use specific examples and case studies to illustrate your points, and be sure to address all parts of the question.
• Trap distinctions: Be aware of common trap distinctions, such as "pluralism vs. elitism," and "dual federalism vs. cooperative federalism."
• Integrating the topic into an argumentative essay: Use the concept of institutions to argue for or against a particular policy or constitutional design.

6. Quick Practice Scenario

Scenario: A president deploys troops without Congressional approval, citing national security concerns. Which constitutional principle is at stake?

Answer: Separation of Powers. The president's action violates the principle of separation of powers, which requires that the executive branch obtain Congressional approval for military action.

7. Last-Minute Cram Sheet

• Montesquieu: Developed the concept of the separation of powers.
• Locke: Developed the social contract theory.
• Bagehot: Introduced the concept of the "efficient secret" in parliamentary systems.
• Weber: Developed the concept of bureaucratic authority.
• Duverger's Law: States that the type of electoral system used in a country will determine the number of parties that can realistically compete.
• Separation of Powers: A fundamental concept in constitutional design, which aims to prevent the concentration of power and protect individual liberties.
• Unitary vs. Federal Systems: Unitary systems have a centralized government, while federal systems divide power between a central government and regional authorities.
• Judicial Review: The power of the judiciary to declare laws and government actions unconstitutional.
• "Separate but equal" was overturned by Brown v. Board – Plessy v. Ferguson was the earlier, racist ruling.
• The U.S. Constitution is a federal system, while the UK is a unitary system.

8. Further Study Resources

• American Government: Stories of a Nation by Brinkley, D., and Dyer, T.
• Khan Academy units: Constitutional Law, Separation of Powers, and Federalism.
• Crash Course Government: A YouTube channel that covers a range of topics in government and politics.
• The Federalist Papers: A collection of essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay that provide insight into the design of the U.S. Constitution.