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NAQT You Gotta Know: Science

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NAQT You Gotta Know: Science

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1. Space X CRS-1

Intended to be a test of the Command/Service Module in low-Earth orbit (LEO). However, a fire on the launchpad during a test killed the three astronauts aboard (Virgil 'Gus' Grissom, Roger Chaffee, and Ed White). The fire was exacerbated by the pure-oxygen, positive-pressure environment inside the capsule, and the fact that the capsule door opened inward. Both of these design elements were scrapped in subsequent missions, and the second was replaced with an outward-opening hatch nominally to facilitate spacewalks. Lessons learned from Apollo 1 were also taken into account during the design of the Space Shuttle.The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.

2. Vostok 1 and Vostok 6

The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.Intended to be a test of the Command/Service Module in low-Earth orbit (LEO). However, a fire on the launchpad during a test killed the three astronauts aboard (Virgil 'Gus' Grissom, Roger Chaffee, and Ed White). The fire was exacerbated by the pure-oxygen, positive-pressure environment inside the capsule, and the fact that the capsule door opened inward. Both of these design elements were scrapped in subsequent missions, and the second was replaced with an outward-opening hatch nominally to facilitate spacewalks. Lessons learned from Apollo 1 were also taken into account during the design of the Space Shuttle.A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.

3. Object-Oriented Programming

The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.Intended to be a test of the Command/Service Module in low-Earth orbit (LEO). However, a fire on the launchpad during a test killed the three astronauts aboard (Virgil 'Gus' Grissom, Roger Chaffee, and Ed White). The fire was exacerbated by the pure-oxygen, positive-pressure environment inside the capsule, and the fact that the capsule door opened inward. Both of these design elements were scrapped in subsequent missions, and the second was replaced with an outward-opening hatch nominally to facilitate spacewalks. Lessons learned from Apollo 1 were also taken into account during the design of the Space Shuttle.

4. Apollo 1

Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.Intended to be a test of the Command/Service Module in low-Earth orbit (LEO). However, a fire on the launchpad during a test killed the three astronauts aboard (Virgil 'Gus' Grissom, Roger Chaffee, and Ed White). The fire was exacerbated by the pure-oxygen, positive-pressure environment inside the capsule, and the fact that the capsule door opened inward. Both of these design elements were scrapped in subsequent missions, and the second was replaced with an outward-opening hatch nominally to facilitate spacewalks. Lessons learned from Apollo 1 were also taken into account during the design of the Space Shuttle.The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.

5. Andrew Wiles

(Born 1953, British) Best known for proving the Taniyama-Shimura conjecture that all rational semi-stable elliptic curves are modular forms. When combined with work already done by other mathematicians, this immediately implied Fermat's last theorem (see above).Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.

6. Fermions

Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.Particles with half-integral spin. Spin is a form of 'intrinsic angular momentum,' possessed by particles as if they were spinning around their axis (but they aren't). The values cited for spin are not (usually) the real magnitude of that angular momentum, but the component of the angular momentum along one axis. Quantum mechanics restricts that component to being n/2 times Planck's constant divided by 2π for some integer n. If n is even, this results in 'integral' spin, if it is odd, it results in 'half-integral' spin. Note that the exact value of the spin itself is a real number; it's the multiplier of h/2π that determines whether it is 'integral' or not. The most significant thing about fermions is that they are subject to the Pauli Exclusion Principle: No two fermions can have the same quantum numbers (i.e., same state). The name 'fermion' comes from the name of the Italian-American physicist Enrico Fermi.The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.

7. Quartz

A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.A mineral composed of SiO4 tetrahedra linked in a framework with oxygen atoms shared between neighboring tetrahedra to give an overall chemical formula of SiO2 (silicon dioxide). Inclusions of different elements give different varieties of quartz, including amethyst (purple). Quartz is the second-most abundant mineral in Earth's crust. Quartz is often used in clocks because it exhibits piezoelectricity. Quartz defines hardness seven on the Mohs scale.Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.

8. Even/Odd Functions

Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.Even functions satisfy the rule f(-x) = f(x) for every x in the domain of the function. The graph of an even function has reflection symmetry over the y-axis. Even functions are so named because if a polynomial's exponents (on the variable) are all even, then the polynomial is an even function. Odd functions satisfy the rule f(-x) = -f(x) for every x in the domain of the function. The graph of an odd function remains the same when it is rotated one hundred and eighty degrees around the origin. Odd functions are so named because if a polynomial's exponents are all odd, then the polynomial is an odd function.A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.

9. Feldspars

The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.A group of silicate minerals that are the most abundant minerals in the Earth's crust. Feldspars are categorized based on whether they contain potassium (orthoclase) or sodium and calcium (plagioclase). The continuous branch of Bowen's reaction series covers the transition from calcium-rich to sodium-rich plagioclases. Orthoclase defines hardness six on the Mohs scale.

10. Algorithm

Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.A set of detailed instructions for solving a problem, such as 'sort a list' or 'divide two numbers.' Algorithms can be described in human language, a programming language, or in other ways, but they are written in detail to explain how to handle all possible inputs (e.g., the list to sort or the numbers to divide) or fail if the task is impossible (e.g., if dividing two numbers and the second is 0). The word 'algorithm' derives from the name of Al-Khwarizmi, a Persian scholar also credited with some of the most fundamental principles in algebra. Computer scientists analyze how many steps algorithms need (time complexity) and how much memory they need for temporary storage of intermediate results (space complexity). The worst-case situations are expressed using big O notation; for example, if an algorithm to sort a list of n items might need up to n^2 to sort the list, the algorithm's worst-case time complexity is O(n^2). (This is a simplification of the mathematics of asymptotic notation.)The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.

11. Apollo 13

It was supposed to land in the Fra Mauro region of the Moon. An improperly-refurbished No. 2 oxygen tank and subsequent improper repairs caused the tank to rupture during a routine 'cryo-stir' before entering lunar orbit. The explosion also damaged the No. 1 oxygen tank and caused further leakage. To bring back the astronauts, the orbiter was put on a free-return trajectory around the Moon. NASA engineers also solved power-management, water-conservation, and trajectory planning problems with the help of Ken Mattingly, the primary Command Module pilot who had been grounded due to exposure to German measles. All three astronauts returned to Earth safely, and the landing site was re-assigned to the subsequent Apollo 14 mission.Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.

12. Marie and Pierre Curie

A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.(1867 - 1945, 1859 - 1906) Rigorously isolated and experimented on radioactive materials, forming the basis for early nuclear and particle physicsThe first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.

13. Exponential Functions

The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.Functions in the form of f(x) = b^x, where b (called the base) is a positive number other than one. Exponential functions are used to model unrestricted growth (such as compound interest, and animal populations with unlimited food and no predators) and decay (such as radioactive decay). The phrase 'the exponential function' refers to the function f(x) = e^x, where e is a specific irrational number called Euler's Number, about equal to 2.718. Exponential functions have the interesting property that their derivatives are proportional to themselves.A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.

14. Micas

The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.A group of silicate minerals known for their perfect basal cleavage, meaning they can easily split into thin, parallel sheets. Common varieties of mica include black biotite and transparent muscovite. Mica is often found in igneous rocks called pegmatites and also serves as the main constituent of the metamorphic rock schist. Micas generally have a Mohs hardness between three and four.

15. Robert Koch

A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.(Won in 1905) Pioneered the field of modern bacteriology, and established his theory of four postulates that must be satisfied in order to determine that a disease is caused by a particular microbe. He used these postulates to discover the bacterial agent that causes tuberculosis, contradicting the popular opinion that the disease was inherited. Koch also determined the causative agents of cholera and anthrax and examined the concept of acquired immunity while on exhibition in German New Guinea.Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.

16. Pauling Scale

A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.The Pauling scale, devised by Linus Pauling in 1932, is one of several scales that measure electronegativity, the extent to which atoms attract electrons in chemical bonds. Higher values correspond to stronger attractions. Francium has the lowest value, about 0.7, while fluorine has the highest value, about 4.0. (Noble gases are not assigned values on the Pauling scale, since they were not known to form any bonds when Pauling devised it.) Differences in electronegativity characterize bonds: the greater the difference, the more ionic the bond.

17. Gottfried Leibniz

The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.(1646 - 1716, German) Known for his independent invention of calculus and the ensuing priority dispute with Isaac Newton. Most modern calculus notation, including the integral sign and the use of d to indicate a differential, originated with Leibniz. He also did work with the binary number system and did fundamental work in establishing boolean algebra and symbolic logic.

18. Earth's Moon

Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.The moon, also called Luna, is the fifth-largest satellite in the solar system, the largest relative to the size of the planet it orbits, and the second densest. The USSR's Luna unmanned spacecraft first reached the moon in 1959, and Apollo 8 became the first manned mission to orbit the moon, in 1968. The 1967 Outer Space Treaty guarantees the rights of all nations to explore the moon for peaceful purposes. The flat dark lunar plains are called maria (singular: mare) and are mainly concentrated on the near side of the moon. The most famous one is Mare Tranquillitatis, the Sea of Tranquility, where Apollo 11 first landed on the moon in 1969. The Apollo program landed on the moon five more times.A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.

19. Gauge Bosons

Fundamental bosons that carry the forces of nature. That is, forces result from particles emitting and absorbing gauge bosons. The strong nuclear force is carried by gluons, the weak nuclear force is carried by the W, Z-, and Z+ particles, the electromagnetic force is carried by the photon, and gravity is carried by the (as yet unobserved) graviton. The name comes from the role of 'gauge theories' in describing the forces (which are beyond the scope of this article).A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.

20. Gredor Mendel's Experiments with Pea Plants

A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.(1860s) Pioneered the study of genetics. Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, proposed the law of segregation, which holds that each organism has two alleles for each trait, which are segregated into gametes so that each gamete inherits one copy, as well as the law of independent assortment, which says that genes for individual traits are inherited independently. He supported both of those laws with experimental evidence by growing and counting pea plants. He worked with seven characteristics including plant height, seed shape, and color. His experiments primarily consisted of hybridizing plants with certain characteristics, and observing what fraction of the next generation had certain traits. His results were remarkably close to the values that would be predicted from modern genetics—close enough, in fact, that Mendel has been accused of manipulating his data.Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.

21. Differentiable Functions

The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.Functions for which the derivative can be found (because a particular limit, called a difference quotient, exists). Like continuity, differentiability is really a property of a specific point, and a differentiable function is one that is differentiable at every point. Every differentiable function is continuous, but some continuous functions are not differentiable; mathematicians thus say that differentiability is a stronger property than continuity. In terms of graphs, a differentiable function has a 'smooth' graph with no corners or cusps (and also, because continuity is required, no holes, jumps, or asymptotes). All polynomials are differentiable, as are the sine and cosine functions, and exponential and logarithmic functions. However, the absolute value function f(x) = |x| is not differentiable because it has a 'corner' at x = 0 (but recall that it is still continuous).

22. Thomas Hunt Morgan

Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.(Won in 1933) Discover the basic mechanisms of genetic inheritance via his experiments on fruit flies, specifically the species Drosophila melanogaster. By conducting a series of experiments in his renowned 'Fly Room' at Columbia University, Morgan and his students tracked mutations, noting how various traits were inherited across successive generations of the flies. His data supported the idea of genetic linkage by noting that the probability of two genes being inherited together correlates inversely with their physical distance on a given chromosome, leading Morgan to postulate the mechanism of crossing over. Because of his work, the unit centimorgan is now used to measure the physical distance between genes.

23. Divide-and-Conquer Algorithms

Use recursion to split problems into smaller subproblems with smaller input sets. By solving the same problem on each of these subproblems, then combining the outputs in some way, a divide-and-conquer algorithm can efficiently solve problems on big input sets. Merge sort (a sorting algorithm), binary search (an algorithm for finding an item in a sorted list), and Karatsuba's algorithm (an algorithm for multiplying integers) are examples of divide-and-conquer algorithms.Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.

24. Hadrons

Any particles made out of quarks (alternatively, any particle affected by the strong nuclear force). Generally, this means the baryons and the mesons. All hadrons are colorless (in the sense of the combined color of their constituent quarks). The name 'hadron' comes from the Greek for 'thick.'Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.

25. Quarks

Vostok 1 and Vostok 6 transported the first human and the first woman into space (respectively, Yuri Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova). Gagarin's April 12, 1961 flight is still celebrated as Yuri's Night. During Vostok 1, Gagarin completed a single orbit around Earth before re-entering and parachuting out of his capsule. Vostok 6 was largely uneventful, though Tereshkova did note minor physical pains and also could not reach the scientific experiments aboard. Both Vostok 1 and 6 used Vostok-K boosters.A programming paradigm that involves the creation of objects from classes that can hold data and transform it in various ways. A class is a definition of the fundamental properties that an object has, while objects are specific examples of a class (for instance, the general idea of a dog is a class, while your pet dog would be an object.) Inheritance allows subclasses to be defined so that the properties of a parent class are present in the sub-class (for example, 'schnauzer' might be a subclass of 'dog'). In composition, an object contains or references another object (which might or might not be of the same class, e.g., a dog's digestive system might be another object). Object-oriented programming also often uses encapsulation to hide unnecessary details from other aspects, e.g., a dog's digestive system doesn't need to know about its circulatory system. Polymorphism is the idea that different classes may be able to do the same things in potentially different ways, e.g., animals all eat but they do so in different ways. Java and C++ are object-oriented languages.Another class of fundamental particle. They also come in six flavors: up, down, charm, strange, top (occasionally called 'truth'), and bottom (occasionally 'beauty'). The up, charm, and top quarks have a charge of +2/3, while the down, strange, and bottom have a charge of -1/3. All quarks are fermions, and they combine in pairs to form mesons and in triples to form baryons. The enormous mass of the top quark (178 GeV) made it difficult to create in particle accelerators, but its discovery in 1995 confirmed an essential element of the Standard Model of particle physics. The name 'quark' comes from the line 'Three quarks for Muster Mark' in Finnegans Wake that appealed to Murray Gell-Mann. The study of quarks (and of the strong nuclear force) is quantum chromodynamics.The first commercial mission to resupply the International Space Station (ISS). A structural failure in one of the nine Merlin engines that make up the Falcon 9 rocket first stage necessitated a longer burn with the remaining eight engines. That correction resulted in a proper orbital insertion for the primary payload (a Dragon resupply vehicle), but an unstable, decaying orbit for its secondary payload (an ORBCOMM satellite). This was taken as a proof of concept by SpaceX for the redundant, multiple-engine design. The craft successfully berthed with the ISS and successfully carried out its primary mission, re-supplying the space station and returning cargo to Earth.

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