Civil Service Exam: Reading Comprehension Skills

There are many kinds of civil service jobs, but one thing they all have in common is reading. Every civil service job in existence requires at least some reading on a regular basis, even if it's only reading forms that need to be filled out, along with the occasional memo. Many jobs, however, will involve extensive, frequent reading. In fact, the amount of reading required in most civil service positions is substantial. That's why reading comprehension is one of the most important topics covered on most exams for these careers.
You'll need to be able to read at an acceptable speed while also being able to clearly understand what you've read. The ability to follow instructions is essential for civil service careers, and in most cases, you'll be given written instructions. Not all of them will be simple and clear cut. In many situations the directions (or any other written material you'll be working with) will require you to do one thing in one kind of situation, do something else in another situation, and take yet another action in a third scenario.
It's likely that you'll be expected to make important decisions based on material you've read. A person who is always asking coworkers or supervisors for clarification of written orders and memos will not be a very productive employee. He/she will also be a drag on the productivity of others, which is not acceptable.
If reading is not your strong suit, you'll want to remedy that before sitting down and taking the civil service exam. Without strong reading comprehension skills, it's going to be virtually impossible to get a high enough score to qualify for a job. Even if a person manages to get hired despite poor reading skills, he'll find that it will be very difficult to succeed on the job, or even enjoy going to work. If you need improvement in this area, you'll want to start working on it right away. Improving your reading skills can be done, and you can achieve remarkable results if you're diligent and willing to work hard, but it takes time. It can't be accomplished overnight. This guide will give you knowledge you need to improve your reading comprehension and exercises to help measure your progress.

Important Reading Comprehension Skills

Topics and Main Ideas
One of the most important skills in reading comprehension is the identification of topics and main ideas. There is a subtle difference between the two. The topic is the subject of a text, or what the text is about.
The main idea, on the other hand, is the most important point being made by the author. The topic is usually expressed in a few words at the most, while the main idea often needs a full sentence to be completely defined. As an example, a short passage might have the topic of penguins and the main idea Penguins are different from other birds in many ways. In most nonfiction writing, the topic and the main idea will be stated directly, often in a sentence at the very beginning or end of the text. When being tested on an understanding of the author's topic, the reader can quickly skim the passage for the general idea, stopping to read only the first sentence of each paragraph. A paragraph's first sentence is often (though not always) the main topic sentence, and it gives you a summary of the content of the paragraph. However, there are cases in which the reader must figure out an unstated topic or main idea. In these instances, the student must read every sentence of the text and come up with an overarching idea that is supported by each of those sentences.

Supporting Details
While the main idea is the overall premise of a story, supporting details provide evidence and backing for the main point. In order to show that a main idea is correct, or valid, the author needs to add details that prove the point. All texts contain details, but they are only classified as supporting details when they serve to reinforce some larger point. Supporting details are most commonly found in informative and persuasive texts. In some cases, they will be clearly indicated with words like for example or for instance, or they will be enumerated with words like first, second, and last. However, they are not always indicated with special words. As a reader, it is important to consider whether the author's supporting details really back up the main point. Supporting details can be factual and correct but still not relevant to the author's point. Conversely, supporting details can seem pertinent but be ineffective because they are based on opinion or assertions that cannot be proven. An example of a main idea is:
'Giraffes live in the Serengeti of Africa.' A supporting detail about giraffes could be: 'A giraffe uses its long neck to reach twigs and leaves on trees.'
The main idea gives the general idea that the text is about giraffes. The supporting detail gives a specific fact about how the giraffes eat.

Theme
As opposed to a main idea, themes are seldom expressed directly in a text, so they can be difficult to identify. A theme is an issue, idea, or question raised by the text. For instance, a theme of Shakespeare's Hamlet is indecision, as the title character explores his own psyche and the results of his failure to make bold choices. A great work of literature may have many themes, and the reader is justified in identifying any for which he or she can find support. One common characteristic of themes is that they raise more questions than they answer. In a good piece of fiction, the author is not always trying to convince the reader, but is instead trying to elevate the reader's perspective and encourage him to consider the themes more deeply. When reading, one can identify themes by constantly asking what general issues the text is addressing. A good way to evaluate an author's approach to a theme is to begin reading with a question in mind (for example, how does this text approach the theme of love?) and then look for textual evidence that addresses that question.

Purposes for Writing

Position
In order to be an effective reader, one must pay attention to the author's position and purpose. Even texts that seem objective and impartial, like textbooks, have a position and bias.
Readers need to take these into account when considering the author's message.
When an author uses emotional language or clearly favors one side of an argument, his position is clear. However, the author's position may be evident not only in what he writes, but in what he doesn't write. For this reason, it is sometimes necessary to review other texts on the same topic in order to understand the author's position. If this is not possible, it may be useful to acquire a little background personal information about the author. When the only source of information is the text, however, the reader should look for language and argumentation that seems to indicate a particular stance on the subject.

Purpose
Identifying the purpose of an author is usually easier than identifying her position. In most cases, the author has no interest in hiding his or her purpose. A text that is meant to entertain, for instance, should be obviously written to please the reader. Most narratives, or stories, are written to entertain, though they may also inform or persuade. Informative texts are easy to identify as well. The most difficult purpose to identify is persuasion, because the author has an interest in making this purpose hard to detect. When a person knows that the author is trying to convince him, he is automatically more wary and skeptical of the argument. For this reason, persuasive texts often try to establish an entertaining tone, hoping to amuse the reader into agreement, or an informative tone, hoping to create an appearance of authority and objectivity. An author's purpose is often evident in the organization of the text. For instance, if the text has headings and subheadings, if key terms are in bold, and if the author makes his main idea clear from the beginning, then the likely purpose of the text is to inform. If the author begins by making a claim and then makes various arguments to support that claim, the purpose is probably to persuade. If the author is telling a story, or is more interested in holding the attention of the reader than in making a particular point or delivering information, then his purpose is most likely to entertain. A. a reader, it is best to judge an author on how well he accomplishes his purpose. In other words, it is not entirely fair to complain that a textbook is boring: if the text is clear and easy to understand, then the author has done his job. Similarly, a storyteller should not be judged too harshly for slightly altering a fact to fit his story, so long as he is able to entertain the reader.

Persuasive Essay
The author's purpose for writing will affect both his writing style and the reader's response. In a persuasive essay, the author is attempting to change the reader's mind or convince him of something he did not believe previously. There are several identifying characteristics of persuasive writing. One is opinion presented as fact. When an author attempts to persuade the reader, he often presents his or her opinions as if they were fact. A reader must be on guard for statements that sound factual but cannot be subjected to research, observation, or experimentation. Another characteristic of persuasive writing is emotional language. An author will often try to play on the reader's emotion by appealing to his sympathy or sense of morality. When an author uses colorful or evocative language with the intent of arousing the reader's passions, it is likely that he is attempting to persuade. Finally, in many cases a persuasive text will give an unfair explanation of opposing positions, if these positions are mentioned at all.

Informative Text
An informative text is written to educate and enlighten the reader. Informative texts are almost always nonfiction, and are rarely structured as a story. The intention of an informative text is to deliver information in the most comprehensible way possible, so the structure of the text is likely to be very clear. In an informative text, the thesis statement is often in the first sentence. The author may use descriptive language, but is likely to put more emphasis on clarity and precision. Informative essays do not typically appeal to the emotions. They often contain facts and figures, and rarely include the opinion of the author.
Sometimes a persuasive essay can resemble an informative essay, especially if the author maintains an even tone and presents his or her views as if they were established fact.

Entertainment
The success or failure of an author's intent to entertain is determined by the reader. Entertaining texts may be either fiction or nonfiction, and may describe real or imagined people, places, and events.
Entertaining texts are often narratives, or stories. A text that is written to entertain is likely to contain colorful language that engages the imagination and the emotions. Such writing often features a great deal of figurative language, enlivening its subject matter with images and analogies. Though an entertaining text is not usually written to persuade or inform, it may accomplish both of these tasks. An entertaining text may appeal to the reader's emotions and cause him or her to think differently about a particular subject.
In any case, entertaining texts tend to showcase the personality of the author more than other types of writing.

Expression of Feelings
When an author intends to express feelings, he/she may use colorful and evocative language. An author may write emotionally for any number of reasons. Sometimes, emotional language is used to describe a personal situation of great pain or happiness. Sometimes an author is attempting to persuade the reader, and so will use emotion to stir up the passions. It can be easy to identify this kind of expression when the writer uses phrases like I felt and I sense. However, sometimes the author will simply describe feelings without introducing them. As a reader, it is important to recognize when an author is expressing emotion, and not to be overwhelmed by sympathy or passion. A reader should maintain some detachment so that he or she can still evaluate the strength of the author's argument or the quality of the writing.

Description
Most writing is descriptive in a sense because it describes events, ideas, or people to the reader. Some texts, however, are primarily concerned with description. A descriptive text focuses on a particular subject and attempts to depict it in a way that will be clear to the reader.
Descriptive texts contain many adjectives and adverbs, words that give shades of meaning and create a more detailed mental picture for the reader. A descriptive text fails when it is unclear or vague to the reader. On the other hand, a descriptive text that compiles too much detail can be boring and overwhelming to the reader. A descriptive text will certainly be informative, and it may be persuasive and entertaining as well. Descriptive writing is challenging, but when it is done well, it can be enjoyable to read.

Writing Devices

Comparing and Contrasting
Authors will use different stylistic and writing devices to make their meaning more clearly understood.
One of those devices is comparison and contrast. When an author describes how two things are alike, he or she is comparing them. When the author describes the ways in which two things are different, he or she is contrasting them.
The 'compare and contrast' essay is one of the most common forms in nonfiction.
It is often signaled with certain words: a comparison may be indicated with such words as both, same, like, too, and as well; while a contrast may be indicated by words like but, however, on the other hand, instead, and yet. Of course, comparisons and contrasts may be implicit without any such signaling language. Also, a single sentence may both compare and contrast. Consider the sentence Brian and Sheila love ice cream, but Brian prefers vanilla and Sheila prefers strawberry.
In one sentence, the author has described both a similarity (love of ice cream) and a difference (favorite flavor).

Cause and Effect
One of the most common text structures is cause and effect.
A cause is an act or event that makes something happen, and an effect is what happens as a result. A cause-and-effect relationship is not always explicit, but there are some words that signal causality, such as since, because, and as a result. Consider the sentence Because the sky was clear, Ron did not bring an umbrella. The cause is the clear sky, and the effect is that Ron did not bring an umbrella. However, sometimes the cause-and-effect relationship will not be clearly noted. For instance, the sentence He was late and missed the meeting does not contain any signaling words, but it still contains a cause (he was late) and an effect (he missed the meeting). It is possible for a single cause to have multiple effects, or for a single effect to have multiple causes. Also, an effect can in turn be the cause of another effect in what is known as a cause-and-effect chain.

Analogy
Authors often use analogies to add meaning to the text. An analogy is a comparison of two things. The words in the analogy are connected by a certain, often undetermined relationship. Look at this analogy: moo is to cow as quack is to duck. This analogy compares the sound that a cow makes with the sound that a duck makes. Even if the word ‘quack' was not given, one could deduce that it is the correct word to complete the analogy based on the relationship between the words ‘moo' and ‘cow.' Some common relationships for analogies include synonyms, antonyms, part to whole, definition, and actor to action.

Point of View
Another element that impacts a text is the author's point of view. A text's point of view is the perspective from which it is told. An author always has a point of view even before drawing up a plot line. The author will know what events will take place, how he/she wants the characters to interact, and how the story will resolve. An author will also have an opinion on the topic, or series of events, that is presented in the story, based on his/her own prior experience and beliefs.
The two main points of view that authors use are first person and third person. If the narrator of the story is also the main character, or protagonist, the text is written in first person. In first person, the author writes with the word I. A third-person point of view is probably the most common. Using third person, authors refer to each character using the words he or she. In third-person omniscient, the narrator is not a character in the story and tells the story of all of the characters with the same insight.

Transitional Words
A good writer uses transitional words and phrases to guide the reader through the text. You are no doubt familiar with the common transitions, though you may never have considered how they operate. Some transitional phrases (after, before, during, in the middle of) give information about time. Some indicate that an example is about to be given (for example, in fact, for instance).
Writers use them to compare (also, likewise) and contrast (however, but, yet). Transitional words and phrases can suggest addition (and, also, furthermore, moreover) and logical relationships (if, then, therefore, as a result, since). Finally, transitional words and phrases can demarcate the steps in a process (first, second, last). You should incorporate transitional words and phrases to orient your reader and explain the structure of your composition.

Types of Passages

Narrative
A narrative passage is a story, fiction or nonfiction. To be classified as a narrative, a text must have a few key elements. To begin with, it must have a plot. That is, it must describe a series of events. If it is a good narrative, these events will be interesting and emotionally engaging to the reader. A narrative also has characters. These could be people, animals, or even inanimate objects, so long as they participate in the plot. A narrative passage often contains figurative language, which is meant to stimulate the imagination of the reader by making comparisons and observations. A metaphor, which uses one thing to describe another, is a common piece of figurative language. The moon was a frosty snowball is an example of a metaphor: it is obviously untrue in the literal sense, but it paints a vivid image for the reader. Narratives often proceed in a clear sequence, but may not always do so.

Expository
An expository passage aims to inform and enlighten the reader. It is nonfiction and usually centers around a simple, easily defined topic. Since the goal of exposition is to teach, it should be as clear as possible. It is common for an expository passage to contain helpful organizing words like first, next, for example, and therefore. These words keep the reader oriented in the text.
Although expository passages do not need to feature creative, descriptive writing, they are often more effective when they do. For a reader, the challenge of expository passages is to maintain steady attention. Expository passages are not always on subjects in which a reader is naturally interested, and the writer is often more concerned with clarity and comprehensibility than with engaging the reader. For this reason, many expository passages seem dull.
Taking notes is a good way to maintain focus when reading an expository passage.

Technical
A technical passage describes a complex object or process. Technical writing is common in medical and technological fields, in which complicated mathematical, scientific, and engineering ideas need to be explained simply and clearly. To aid comprehension, a technical passage usually follows a very logical order.
Technical passages typically have clear headings and subheadings, helping to keep the reader oriented in the text. It is also common to organize sections by numbers or letters. Many technical passages look more like an outline than a piece of prose. The amount of jargon or difficult vocabulary in a technical passage varies, depending on the intended audience. As much as possible, technical passages try to avoid language that the reader will have to research to understand the message. Of course, it is not always possible to avoid jargon.

Persuasive
A persuasive passage is meant to change the reader's mind or lead him/her into agreement with the author. The persuasive intent may be obvious, or it may be difficult to discern. In some cases, a persuasive passage will be indistinguishable from an informative passage: it will make an assertion and offer supporting details. However, a persuasive passage is more likely to make claims based on opinion and to appeal to the reader's emotions.
Persuasive passages may not describe alternate positions or may display significant bias when they do. It may be clear that a persuasive passage is giving the author's viewpoint, or the passage may adopt a seemingly objective tone. A persuasive passage is successful if it can make a convincing argument and win the trust of the reader.
A persuasive essay will likely focus on one central argument, but it may make several smaller claims along the way. These are subordinate arguments with which the reader must agree if he or she is going to accept the central argument. The central argument is only as strong as the subordinate claims. These claims should be rooted in fact and observation, rather than subjective judgment. The best persuasive essays provide enough supporting detail to justify claims without overwhelming the reader. Remember that a fact must be susceptible to independent verification—it must be something the reader can confirm. Also, statistics are only effective when they take into account possible objections. For instance, a statistic on the number of foreclosed houses would only be useful if it was measured over a defined interval and in a defined area. Most readers are wary of statistics, because they are so often misleading. If possible, a persuasive essay should include references so that the reader can obtain more information. Of course, this means that the writer's accuracy and fairness may be judged by the inquiring reader, but giving references adds credence.
Opinions are formed by emotion as well as reason, and persuasive writers often appeal to the feelings of the reader. Although readers should always be skeptical of this technique, it is often used in a proper and ethical manner. For instance, many subjects have an obvious emotional component, and therefore cannot be fully covered without an appeal to the emotions. Consider an article on drunk driving: it makes sense to include specific examples that will alarm or sadden the reader. After all, drunk driving often has serious and tragic consequences. Emotional appeals are not appropriate, however, when they attempt to mislead the reader. For instance, in political advertisements it is common to emphasize the patriotism of the preferred candidate, because this will encourage the audience to link his/her own positive feelings about the country with his/her opinion of the candidate.
However, these ads often falsely imply that the other candidate is unpatriotic.
Another common and improper emotional appeal is the use of loaded language, such as referring to an avidly religious person as a 'fanatic' or a passionate environmentalist as a 'tree hugger.' These terms introduce an emotional component that detracts from the argument.

Responding to Literature

Prediction
When reading good literature, the reader is moved to engage actively in the text. One part of being an active reader involves making predictions. A prediction is a guess about what will happen next. Readers are constantly making predictions based on what they have read and what they already know. Consider the following sentence: Staring at the computer screen in shock, Kim blindly reached for the brimming glass of water on the shelf beside her. The sentence suggests that Kim is agitated and that she is not looking at the glass she is going to pick up, so a reader might predict that she is going to knock the glass over. Of course, not every prediction will be accurate: perhaps Kim will pick the glass up without incident. Nevertheless, the author has certainly created the expectation that the water might be spilled. Predictions are always subject to revision as the reader acquires more information.

Test-taking tip: To respond to questions requiring future predictions, your answers should be based on evidence of past or present behavior.

Inference
Readers are often required to understand text that claims and suggests ideas without stating them directly. An inference is a piece of information that is implied but not written outright by the author. For instance, consider the following sentence: Mark made more money that week than he had in the previous year. From this sentence, the reader can infer that Mark either did not make much money in the previous year or made a great deal of money that week. Often, a reader can use information he or she already knows to make inferences. Take as an example the sentence When his coffee arrived, he looked around the table for the silver cup. Many people know that cream is typically served in a silver cup, so using their own base of knowledge they can infer that the subject of this sentence takes his coffee with cream. Making inferences requires concentration, attention, and practice.

Test-taking tip: While being tested on your ability to make correct inferences, you must look for contextual clues. A. answer can be true but not correct. The contextual clues will help you choose the best answer out of the given choices. Understand the context in which a phrase is stated. When asked for the implied meaning of a statement made in the passage, you should immediately locate the statement and read the context in which it was made. Also, look for an answer choice with a similar phrase to the statement in question.

Sequence
A reader must be able to identify a text's sequence, or the order in which things happen. Often, and especially when the sequence is very important to the author, it is indicated with signal words like first, then, next, and last.

However, sometimes a sequence is merely implied and must be noted by the reader. Consider the sentence He walked in the front door and switched on the hall lamp. Clearly, the man did not turn the lamp on before he walked in the door, so the implied sequence is that he first walked in the door and then turned on the lamp. Texts do not always proceed in an orderly sequence from first to last. Sometimes they begin at the end as a foreshadowing device and then start over at the beginning. As a reader, it can be useful to make brief notes to clarify the sequence.


Drawing Conclusions
In addition to inferring and predicting things about the text, the reader must often draw conclusions about the information he has read.

When asked for a conclusion, look for critical 'hedge' phrases such as likely, may, can, and will often, among others. When you are being tested on this knowledge, remember that question writers insert these hedge phrases to cover every possibility. Often an answer will be wrong simply because it leaves no room for exception. Extreme positive or negative answers
(such as always, never, etc.) are usually not correct. The reader should not use any outside knowledge that is not gathered from the reading passage to answer the related questions. Correct answers can be drawn directly from the reading passage.

Opinions, Facts, and Fallacies
Critical thinking skills are mastered through understanding various types of writing and the different purposes of authors. Every author writes for a purpose. Understanding that purpose, and how the author accomplishes a goal, will allow you to critique the writing and determine whether or not you agree with the conclusions.

Fact and Opinion
Readers must always be conscious of the distinction between fact and opinion. A fact can be subjected to analysis and either proved or disproved. An opinion, on the other hand, is the author's personal feeling, which may not be proven by research, evidence, or argument. If the author writes that the distance from New York to Boston is about two hundred miles, he is stating a fact. But if he writes that New York is too crowded, then he is giving an opinion, because there is no objective standard for overpopulation. A. opinion may be indicated by words like believe, think, or feel.

Also, an opinion may be supported by facts. For instance, the author might give the population density of New York as a reason for why it is overcrowded. An opinion supported by fact tends to be more convincing. When authors support their opinions with other opinions, the reader is unlikely to be persuaded.

The author should present facts from reliable sources. An opinion is what the author thinks about a given topic. An opinion is not common knowledge or proven by expert sources, but it is information that the author believes and wants the reader to consider. To distinguish between fact and opinion, a reader needs to examine the type of source, what information backs up a claim, and whether or not the author may be motivated to convey a certain point of view. For example, if a panel of scientists has conducted multiple studies on the effectiveness of taking a certain vitamin, the results are more likely to be factual than if a company selling the vitamin claims that it can produce positive effects. The company is motivated to sell its product, while the scientists are examining it more objectively. If the author uses phrases such as 'I think,' the statement is an opinion.

In their attempt to persuade, writers often make mistakes in their thinking patterns and writing choices. It's important to understand these so you can make an informed decision. Every author has a point of view, but when he/she ignores reasonable counterarguments or distorts opposing viewpoints, this is demonstrating a bias. A bias is evident when the author is unfair or inaccurate in his or her presentation. Bias may be intentional or unintentional, but it should always alert the reader to question the argument.

It should be noted that a biased author may still be correct. However, the author will be correct in spite of her bias, not because of it. A stereotype is like a bias, except that it is specifically applied to a group or place.

Stereotyping is considered to be particularly abhorrent because it promotes negative generalizations about people. Many people are familiar with the negative stereotypes of certain ethnic, religious, and cultural groups. Readers should be very wary of authors who stereotype. These faulty assumptions typically reveal the author's ignorance and lack of curiosity or objectivity.

Sometimes, authors will appeal to the reader's emotion in an attempt to persuade or distract the reader from the argument's weakness. For instance, the author may try to inspire the reader's pity by delivering a heart-rending story. An author also might use the bandwagon approach, suggesting that his/her opinion is correct because it is held by the majority.

Some authors resort to name-calling, in which insults and harsh words are delivered to the opponent in an attempt to distract. In advertising, a common appeal is the testimonial, in which a famous person endorses a product. Of course, the fact that a celebrity likes something should not really matter to the reader. These and other emotional appeals are usually evidence of poor reasoning and a weak argument.

Logical Fallacies
Certain logical fallacies are frequent in writing. A logical fallacy is a failure of reasoning. As a reader, it is important to recognize logical fallacies, because they diminish the value of the author's message. The four most common logical fallacies in writing are the false analogy, circular reasoning, false dichotomy, and overgeneralization. In a false analogy, the author suggests that two things are similar, when in fact they are different. This fallacy is often committed when the author is attempting to convince the reader that something unknown is like something relatively familiar. The author takes advantage of the reader's ignorance to make this false comparison. One example might be the following statement: Failing to tip a waitress is like stealing money out of somebody's wallet. Of course, failing to tip is very rude, especially when the service has been good, but people are not arrested for failing to tip as they would be for stealing money from a wallet. To compare stingy diners with thieves is a false analogy.

Circular reasoning is one of the more difficult logical fallacies to identify, because it is typically hidden behind dense language and complicated sentences. Reasoning is described as circular when it offers no support for assertions other than restating them in different words. Put another way, a circular argument uses itself as evidence of truth. A simple example of circular argument is when a person uses a word to define itself, such as saying Niceness is the state of being nice. If the reader does not know what nice means, then this definition will not be very useful.

In a text, circular reasoning is usually more complex. For instance, an author might say, Poverty is a problem for society because it creates trouble for people throughout the community. It is redundant to say that poverty is a problem because it creates trouble. When an author engages in circular reasoning, it is often because he or she has not fully thought through the argument, or cannot come up with any legitimate justifications.

One of the most common logical fallacies is the false dichotomy, in which the author creates an artificial sense that there are only two possible alternatives in a situation. This fallacy is common when the author has an agenda and wants to give the impression that his/her view is the only sensible one. A false dichotomy has the effect of limiting the reader's options and imagination. An example is the statement You need to go to the party with me, or you'll just be bored at home. The speaker suggests that the only other possibility besides being at the party is being bored at home. This is not true, as it is possible to be entertained at home or to go somewhere other than the party. Readers should always be wary of the false dichotomy—when an author limits alternatives, it is always wise to ask whether he/she is being valid.

Overgeneralization is a logical fallacy in which the author makes a claim so broad that it cannot be proved or disproved. In most cases, overgeneralization occurs when the author wants to create an illusion of authority, or when he/she is using sensational language to sway the reader's opinion. For instance, in the sentence Everybody knows that she is a terrible teacher, the author makes an assumption that cannot really be believed. The author is attempting to create the illusion of consensus when none actually exists. It may be that most people have a negative view of the teacher, but to say that everybody feels that way is an exaggeration. When a reader spots overgeneralization, she should become skeptical about the argument, because an author will often try to hide a weak or unsupported assertion behind authoritative language.

Two other types of logical fallacies are slippery slope arguments and hasty generalizations. In a slippery slope argument, the author says that if something happens, a certain result is guaranteed, even though this may not be true. For example, studying hard does not mean you are going to ace a test. Hasty generalization means drawing a conclusion too early, without finishing analysis of the argument's details. Writers of persuasive texts often use these techniques because they are very effective. In order to identify logical fallacies, readers need to read carefully and ask questions as they read. Thinking critically means not taking everything at face value. Readers need to critically evaluate an author's argument to make sure that the logic is sound.

Organization of Text
The way a text is organized can help the reader understand more clearly the author's intent and conclusions. There are various ways to organize a text, and each has its own purposes and uses.

Presenting a Problem
Some nonfiction texts are organized to present a problem followed by a solution. In this type of text, it is common for the problem to be explained before the solution is offered. In some cases, as when the problem is well known, the solution may be briefly introduced at the beginning. The entire passage may focus on the solution, and the problem will be referenced only occasionally. Some texts outline multiple solutions to a problem, leaving the reader to choose among them. If the author has an interest in or allegiance to one solution, he may fail to mention or may inaccurately describe other solutions. Readers should be careful of the author's agenda when reading a problem-solution text. Only by understanding the author's point of view and interests can one properly judge the proposed solution.

Chronological Order
An author needs to organize information logically so the reader can follow it and locate information within the text. Two common organizational structures are cause and effect and chronological order. When using chronological order, the author presents information in the order that it happened. For example, biographies are written in chronological order; the subject's birth and childhood are presented first, followed by adult life, and finally the events leading up to death.

In cause and effect, an author presents an event that causes something else to happen. For example, if one were to go to bed very late, he/she would be tired the next day. The cause is going to bed late, with the effect of being tired the next day.

It can be tricky to identify the cause-and-effect relationships in a text, but there are a few ways to approach this task. These relationships are often signaled with certain terms. When an author uses words like because, since, in order, and so, she is likely describing a cause-and-effect relationship. Consider the sentence, 'He called her because he needed the homework.' This is a simple causal relationship, in which the cause was his need for the homework and the effect was his phone call. Not all cause-and-effect relationships are marked in this way, however. Consider the sentences, 'He called her. He needed the homework.'

When the cause-and-effect relationship is not indicated with a keyword, it can be discovered by asking why something happened. Why did he call? The answer is in the next sentence—he needed the homework.

Persuasive essays, in which an author tries to make a convincing argument and change the reader's mind, usually include cause-and-effect relationships. However, these relationships should not always be taken at face value. An author frequently assumes a cause or takes an effect for granted. To read a persuasive essay effectively, one needs to judge the cause-and-effect relationships the author is presenting. For instance, an author could write the following: 'The parking deck has been unprofitable because people prefer to ride their bikes.' The relationship is clear: the cause is that people prefer to ride their bikes, and the effect is that the parking deck has been unprofitable. However, a reader should consider whether this argument is conclusive. There could be other reasons for the failure of the parking deck: a down economy, excessive fees, etc. Too often, authors present causal relationships as if they are fact rather than opinion. Readers should be on the alert for these dubious claims.

Comparison and Contrast
Thinking critically about ideas and conclusions can seem like a daunting task. One way to make it easier is to understand the basic elements of ideas and writing techniques. Looking at the way different ideas relate to each other is a good way for the reader to begin his/her analysis.

For instance, an author may write about two opposing ideas. Analyzing these is known as contrast. Contrast is often marred by the author's obvious partiality to one of the ideas. A discerning reader will be put off by an author who does not 'fight fairly.' In an analysis of opposing ideas, both ideas should be presented in their clearest and most reasonable terms. If the author does prefer a side, he/she should avoid indicating this preference with pejorative language. An analysis of opposing ideas should proceed through the major differences point by point, with a full explanation of each side. For instance, in an analysis of capitalism and communism, it would be important to outline each side's view on labor, markets, prices, personal responsibility, etc. It would be less effective to describe the theory of communism and then explain how capitalism has thrived in the West. An analysis of opposing views should present each side in the same manner.

Many texts follow the compare-and-contrast model, exploring the similarities and differences between two ideas or things. Analysis of the similarities is called comparison. In order for a comparison to work, the author must place the ideas or things in an equivalent structure. That is, the author must present the ideas in the same way. Imagine an author wanted to show the similarities between cricket and baseball. He/she could do this by summarizing the equipment and rules for each game. It would be incorrect to summarize the equipment of cricket and then tell the history of baseball, since this would make it impossible for the reader to see the similarities. It is perhaps too obvious to say that an analysis of similar ideas should emphasize the similarities. Of course, the author should also include differences. Often, these small differences will only reinforce the more general similarity.

Drawing Conclusions
Identifying the Logical Conclusion

An author should have a clear purpose in mind while writing. Especially when reading informational texts, it is important to understand the logical conclusion of the author's ideas. Identifying this logical conclusion can help the reader understand whether he/she agrees with the writer or not. It is much like making an inference: it requires the reader to combine the information given by the text with what he already knows to make a supportable assertion. If a passage is written well, the conclusion should be obvious even when it is unstated. If the author intends the reader to draw a certain conclusion, then all argumentation and detail should lead toward it. One way to approach the task of drawing conclusions is to make brief notes of all the author's points. When these are arranged on paper, they may clarify the logical conclusion. Another way to approach conclusions is to consider whether the author's reasoning raises any pertinent questions. Sometimes it is possible to draw multiple conclusions from a passage, and on occasion these were never intended by the author. It is essential, however, that these conclusions be supported directly by the text.


Text Evidence
The term text evidence refers to information that supports a main point or points in a story and can guide the reader to a conclusion. Information used as text evidence is precise, descriptive, and factual. A main point is often followed by supporting details that provide evidence to back up a claim. For example, a story may include the claim that winter occurs during opposite months in the Northern and Southern hemispheres. Text evidence based on this claim may include countries where winter occurs in opposite months, along with the reasons (the tilt of the earth as it rotates around the sun).

Readers interpret text and respond in a number of ways.
Using textual support helps defend your response or interpretation because it roots your thinking in the text. You are interpreting based on information in the text and not simply your own ideas. When crafting a response, look for important quotes and details from the text to bolster your argument. If you are writing about a character's personality trait, for example, use details from the text to show how the character displayed this trait. You can also include statistics and facts from a nonfiction text to strengthen your response. For example, instead of writing, 'A lot of people use cell phones,' use statistics to provide a specific number. This strengthens your argument because it is more precise.

Credibility
The text used to support an argument can be the argument's downfall if it is not credible. A text is credible, or believable, when the author is knowledgeable and objective, or unbiased. The author's motivations for writing play a critical role in determining the credibility of the text and must be evaluated when assessing that credibility. The author's motives should be simply to disseminate information. The purpose of the text should be to inform or describe, not to persuade. When an author writes a persuasive text, his/her motivation is to convince the reader to do what he/she wants. The extent of the author's knowledge and motivation must be evaluated when assessing the credibility of a text. Reports written about the ozone layer by an environmental scientist and a hairdresser will have a different level of credibility.

Response to Text
After determining your own opinion and evaluating the credibility of your supporting text, it is sometimes necessary to communicate your ideas and findings to others. When writing a response to a text, it is important to use elements of the text to support your assertion or defend your position. Using supporting evidence from the text strengthens the argument because it shows that you read the original piece in depth and based your response on the details and facts within that text. Elements of text that can be used in a response include: facts, details, statistics, and direct quotations.
When writing a response, one must indicate which information comes from the original text and then base the discussion, argument, or defense around this information.

Directly Stated Information
A reader should constantly draw conclusions from the text.
Sometimes conclusions are implied from written information, and other times the information is stated directly within the passage. It is always stronger to draw conclusions from information stated within a passage, rather than from mere implications. At times an author may provide some information and then describe a counterargument. The reader should be alert for direct statements that are subsequently rejected or weakened by the author and should always read the entire passage before drawing conclusions. Many readers are trained to expect the author's conclusions at either the beginning or the end of the passage, but many texts do not adhere to this format.

Implications
Drawing conclusions from information implied within a passage requires the reader's confidence. Implications are things the author does not state directly, but that can be assumed based on what the author does say. For instance, consider the following simple passage: 'I stepped outside and opened my umbrella. By the time I got to work, the cuffs of my pants were soaked.' The author never states that it is raining, but this fact is clearly implied. Conclusions based on implication must be well supported by the text.
In order to draw a solid conclusion, a reader should have multiple pieces of evidence, or, if he only has one, must be assured that there is no other possible explanation than his conclusion. A good reader will be able to draw many conclusions from information implied by the text, which enriches the reading experience considerably.

Outlining
As an aid to drawing conclusions, the reader should be adept at outlining the information contained in the passage; an effective outline will reveal the structure of the passage, and will lead to solid conclusions. An effective outline will have a title referencing the basic subject of the text, though it need not repeat the main idea. In most outlines, the main idea is the first major section. It will establish each major idea of the passage as the head of a category. The most common outline format indicates the main ideas of the passage with Roman numerals. None of the Roman numerals will designate minor details or secondary ideas. Moreover, all supporting ideas and details should be placed in the appropriate section on the outline. An outline does not need to include every detail listed in the text, but it should feature all that are central to the argument or message. Each details should be listed under the appropriate main idea.

Summary
It is also helpful to summarize the information in paragraph or passage format. This process is similar to creating an effective outline. To begin with, a summary should accurately define the main idea of the passage, though it does not need to explain it in exhaustive detail. It should continue by laying out the most important supporting details or arguments from the passage. All significant supporting details should be included, but no irrelevant or insignificant details. Also, the summary must accurately report these details. Too often, the desire for brevity in a summary leads to the sacrifice of clarity or veracity. Summaries are often difficult to read, because they omit all the graceful language, descriptions, and asides that distinguish great writing. However, if the summary is effective, it should contain the same message as the original text.

Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing is another method the reader can use to aid comprehension. When paraphrasing, one rephrases what the author has written in his/her own words, 'translating' the author's message and including as many details as possible.

Informational Sources
Informational sources may come in short forms like memos and articles or longer forms like books, magazines, and journals. These longer sources of information each have their own way of organizing information, but there are some similarities that the reader should be aware of.

Table of Contents
Most books, magazines, and journals have a table of contents at the beginning. This helps the reader find the different parts of the book.
The table of contents is usually found a page or two after the title page in a book, and on the first few pages of a magazine. However, many magazines now place the table of contents in the midst of advertisements, because they know readers will have to look at the ads as they search for the table. The standard orientation for a table of contents has the sections of the book listed along the left side, with the initial page number for each along the right. It is common in a book for the prefatory material (preface, introduction, etc.) to be numbered with Roman numerals. The contents are always listed in order from the beginning of the book to the end.

Index
A nonfiction book also typically has an index at the end so that the reader can easily find information on particular topics. An index lists the topics in alphabetical order. The names of people are listed with the last name first. For example, Adams, John would come before Washington, George. To the right of the entry, the relevant page numbers are listed.
When a topic is mentioned over several pages, the index will often connect these pages with a dash. For instance, if the subject is mentioned from pages 35 to 42 and again on 53, then the index entry will be labeled as 35–42, 53.
Some entries will have subsets, which are listed below the main entry, indented slightly, and placed in alphabetical order. This is common for subjects that are discussed frequently in the book. For instance, in a book about Elizabethan drama, William Shakespeare will likely be an important topic. Beneath Shakespeare's name in the index, there might be listings for death of, dramatic works of, life of, etc. These more specific entries help the reader refine his search.

Headings and Subheadings
Many informative texts, especially textbooks, use headings and subheadings for organization. Headings and subheadings are typically printed in larger and bolder fonts (or all capitals), and are often in a different color than the main body of the text. Headings may be larger than subheadings. Also, headings and subheadings are not always complete sentences.
A heading announces the topic that will be addressed in the text below.
Headings are meant to alert the reader to what is about to come. Subheadings announce the topics of smaller sections within the entire section indicated by the heading. For instance, the heading of a section in a science textbook might be AMPHIBIANS, and within that section might be subheadings for Frogs, Salamanders, and Newts. Readers should always pay close attention to headings and subheadings, because they prime the brain for the information that is about to be delivered, and because they make it easy to go back and find particular details in a long text.

Reference Materials

Dictionaries
Knowledge of reference materials such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, and manuals is vital for any reader. Dictionaries contain a multitude of information about words. A standard dictionary entry begins with a pronunciation guide for the word. The entry will also give the word's part of speech (noun, verb, adjective, etc.). A good dictionary will also include the word's etymology, or origin, including the language from which it is derived and its meaning in that language.

Dictionary entries are in alphabetical order. Many words have more than one definition, in which case the definitions will be numbered.

Also, if a word can be used as different parts of speech, its various definitions may be separated. A sample entry might look like this:

WELL: (adverb) 1. in a good way (noun) 1. a hole drilled into the earth

The correct definition of a word will vary depending on how it is used in a sentence. When looking up a word found while reading, the best way to determine the relevant definition is to substitute the dictionary's definitions for the word in the text, and select the definition that seems most appropriate.

Encyclopedias
Encyclopedias used to be the best source for general information on a range of common subjects. Many people took pride in owning a set of encyclopedias, which were often written by top researchers. Now, encyclopedias largely exist online. Although they no longer have a preeminent place in general scholarship, these digital encyclopedias now often feature audio and video clips. A good encyclopedia remains the best place to obtain basic information about a well-known topic. There are also specialty encyclopedias that cover more obscure or expert information. For instance, medical encyclopedias contain the detail and sophistication required by doctors. For a regular person researching a subject like ostriches, Pennsylvania, or the Crimean War, a basic encyclopedia is a good source.

Thesaurus
A thesaurus is a reference book that gives synonyms of words. Unlike a dictionary, a thesaurus does not give definitions, only lists of synonyms. A thesaurus can be helpful in finding the meaning of an unfamiliar word when reading. If the meaning of a synonym is known, then the meaning of the unfamiliar word can be inferred. A thesaurus is also helpful when writing.

Using a thesaurus helps authors to vary their word choice.

Database
A database is an informational source with a different format than a publication or a memo. It is a system for storing and organizing large amounts of information. As personal computers have become more common and accessible, databases have become ever more present. The standard layout of a database is a grid, with labels along the left side and top. The horizontal rows and vertical columns that make up the grid are usually numbered or lettered, so that a particular square within the database might be referenced as A3 or G5. Databases are good for storing information that can be expressed succinctly. They are most commonly used to store numerical data but can also be used to store the answers to yes/no questions and other brief data points.

Information that is ambiguous (multiple possible meanings) or difficult to express in a few words is not appropriate for a database.

Context
Often, a reader will come across a word he/she does not recognize. It is important to be able to identify a word's definition from its context. This means defining a word based on the words around it and the way it is used in a sentence. Consider the following sentence: The elderly scholar spent his evenings hunched over arcane texts that few other people even knew existed. The adjective arcane is uncommon, but the reader can obtain significant information about it based on its use here. Because few other people know of the texts' existence, the reader can assume that arcane texts must be rare and only of interest to a few people. Because they are being read by an elderly scholar, the reader can assume that they focus on difficult academic subjects. Sometimes, words can even be defined by process of elimination. Consider the following sentence: Ron's fealty to his parents was not shared by Karen, who disobeyed their every command. Because someone who disobeys is not demonstrating fealty, the word can be inferred to mean obedience or respect.

Primary Sources
When conducting research, it is important to use reputable primary sources. A primary source is the documentary evidence closest to the subject being studied. For instance, the primary sources for an essay about penguins would be photographs and recordings of the birds, as well as accounts of people who have studied penguins in person. A secondary source would be a review of a movie about penguins or a book outlining the observations made by others. A primary source should be credible and, if it is on a subject that is still being explored, recent. One way to assess the credibility of a work is to see how often it is mentioned in other books and articles on the same subject. By reading the works cited and bibliography sections of other books, one can get a sense of the acknowledged authorities in the field.

Internet
The Internet was once considered an unreliable place to find sources for an essay or article, but its credibility has improved greatly over the years. Still, students need to exercise caution when researching online.

The best sources are those affiliated with established institutions, like universities, public libraries, and think tanks. Most newspapers are available online, and many of them allow the public to browse their archives. Magazines frequently offer similar services. When obtaining information from an unknown website, however, one must exercise considerably more caution. A website can be considered trustworthy if it is referenced by other reputable sites. Also, credible sites tend to be properly maintained and frequently updated. A site is easier to trust when the author provides some information about him or herself, including some credentials that indicate expertise in the subject matter.

Organizing and Understanding Graphic Information
Two of the most common ways to organize ideas from a text, paraphrasing and summarizing, are verbal organizational methods. Graphic organizers are also useful in arranging ideas from a text. A graphic organizer is a way to simplify information and take only key points from the text. A graphic organizer such as a timeline may have an event listed for a corresponding date on the timeline, whereas an outline may have an event listed under a key point that occurs in the text. Each reader needs to create the type of graphic organizer that works the best for him or her—the method that will best aid in recalling information from a story.

Examples include a spider-map, which takes a main idea from the story and places it in a bubble, with supporting points branching off the main idea, an outline, useful for diagramming the main and supporting points of the entire story, and a Venn diagram, which classifies information as separate or overlapping.

Authors can also use these graphic organizers to enliven their presentation or text, but this may be counterproductive if the graphics are confusing or misleading. A graph should strip the author's message down to the essentials. It should have a clear title and should be in the appropriate format. Authors may elect to use tables, line or bar graphs, or pie charts to illustrate their message. Each of these formats is correct for different types of data. The graphic should be large enough to read and should be divided into appropriate categories. For instance, if the text discusses the differences between federal spending on the military and on the space program, a pie chart or a bar graph would be the most effective choices. The pie chart could show each type of spending as a portion of total federal spending, while the bar graph would be better for directly comparing the amounts of money spent on these two programs.
In most cases, the work of interpreting information presented in graphs, tables, charts, and diagrams is done for the reader. The author usually makes clear his or her reasons for presenting a certain set of data in such a way. However, an effective reader will avoid taking the author's claims for granted. Before considering the information presented in the graphic, the reader should consider whether the author has chosen the correct format for presentation, or whether the author has omitted variables or other information that might undermine his case. Interpreting the graphic itself is essentially an exercise in spotting trends. On a graph, for instance, the reader should be alert for how one variable responds to a change in the other.

If education level increases, for example, does income increase as well? The same can be done for a table. Readers should be alert for values that break or exaggerate a trend; these may be meaningless outliers or indicators of a change in conditions.

When a reader is required to draw conclusions from the information presented in graphs, tables, charts, or diagrams, it is important to limit these conclusions to the terms of the graphic itself. In other words, the reader should avoid extrapolating from the data to make claims that are not supportable. As an example, consider a graph that compares the price of eggs to the demand. If the price and demand rise and fall together, a reader would be justified in saying that the demand for eggs and the price are tied together.

However, this simple graph does not indicate which of these variables causes the other, so the reader would not be justified in concluding that the price of eggs raises or lowers the demand, as demand could be tied to a multitude of other factors not included in the chart.

Tables and Charts

Tables
Tables are presented in a standard format so they will be easy to read and understand. A title is at the top, a short phrase indicating the information the table or graph intends to convey. The title of a table could be something like 'Average Income for Various Education Levels' or 'Price of Milk Compared to Demand.' A table is composed of information laid out in vertical columns and horizontal rows. Typically, each column will have a label.

If 'Average Income for Various Education Levels' was placed in a table format, the two columns could be labeled 'Education Level' and 'Average Income.' Each location on the table is called a cell, which holds a piece of information.

Cells are defined by their column and row (e.g., second column, fifth row).

Graphs
Like a table, a graph typically has a title at the top. This title may simply state the identities of the two axes: e.g., 'Income vs. Education.' However, the title may also be something more descriptive, like 'A comparison of average income with level of education.' In any case, bar and line graphs are laid out along two perpendicular lines, or axes. The vertical axis is called the y-axis, and the horizontal axis is called the x-axis.

It is typical for the x-axis to be the independent variable and the y-axis to be the dependent variable. The independent variable is the one manipulated by the researcher or creator of the graph. In the above example, the independent variable would be 'level of education,' since the maker of the graph will define these values (high school, college, master's degree, etc.).

The dependent value is not controlled by the researcher.

When selecting a graph format, it is important to consider the intention and the structure of the presentation. A bar graph is appropriate for displaying the relations between a series of distinct quantities that are on the same scale. For instance, if one wanted to display the amount of money spent on groceries during the months of a year, a bar graph would be appropriate. The vertical axis would represent values of money, and the horizontal axis would identify each month. A line graph also requires data expressed in common units, but it is better for demonstrating the general trend in that data. If the grocery expenses were plotted on a line graph instead of a bar graph, there would be more emphasis on whether the amount of money spent rose or fell over the course of the year. Whereas a bar graph is good for showing the relationships between the different values plotted, the line graph is good for showing whether the values tended to increase, decrease, or remain stable.

Line Graph
A line graph is typically used for measuring trends over time. It is set up along a vertical and horizontal axis. The variables being measured are listed along the left and bottom sides of the axes. Points are then plotted along the graph to correspond with their values for each variable.

For instance, imagine a line graph measuring a person's income for each month of the year. If the person earned $1500 in January, there would be a point directly above January and directly to the right of $1500. Once all of the lines are plotted, they are connected with a line from left to right. This line provides a nice visual illustration of the general trends. For instance, if the line sloped up, it would indicate that the person's income had increased over the course of the year.

Bar Graph
The bar graph is one of the most common visual representations of information. Bar graphs are used to illustrate sets of numerical data. The graph has a vertical axis, along which numbers are listed, and a horizontal axis, along which categories, words, or some other indicators are placed. An example of a bar graph is a depiction of the respective heights of famous basketball players: the vertical axis would contain numbers ranging from five to eight feet, and the horizontal axis would contain the names of the players. The length of the bar above the player's name would illustrate his height, lining up with the number listed along the left side. In this representation, then, it would be easy to see that Yao Ming is taller than Michael Jordan, because Yao's bar would be higher.

Pie Chart
A pie chart, also known as a circle graph, is useful for depicting how a single unit or category is divided. The standard pie chart is a circle divided into wedges. Each of these wedges is proportional in size to its part of the whole. Consider a pie chart representing a student's budget. If the student spends half her money on rent, then the pie chart will represent that amount with a line through the center of the pie. If she spends a quarter of her money on food, there will be a line extending from the edge of the circle to the center at a right angle to the line depicting rent. This illustration would make it clear that the student spends twice as much money on rent as she does on food. The pie chart is only appropriate for showing how a whole is divided, not for demonstrating the relationships between parts of different wholes. For example, it would not be helpful to use a pie chart to compare the respective amounts of state and federal spending devoted to infrastructure, since these values are only meaningful in the context of the entire budget.

Determining Word Meaning

An understanding of the basics of language is helpful, and often vital, to understanding what you read. Structural analysis refers to looking at the parts of a word and breaking it down into its different components to determine the meaning. By learning the meanings of word fundamentals, you can decipher the meaning of words that may not yet be in your vocabulary. Parts of a word include prefixes, suffixes, and the root word.

Prefixes are common letter combinations at the beginning of words, while suffixes are common letter combinations at the end. The main part of the word is known as the root. Visually, it would look like this: prefix + root word + suffix. Look first at the individual meanings of the root word, prefix and/or suffix. Use knowledge of the meaning(s) of the prefix and/or suffix to see what information it adds to the root. Even if the meaning of the root is unknown, one can use knowledge of the prefix and/or suffix to determine an approximate meaning of the word. For example, if one sees the word uninspired and does not know what it means, they can use the knowledge that un- means
‘not' to know that the full word means 'not inspired.' Understanding the common prefixes and suffixes can illuminate at least part of the meaning of an unfamiliar word.

Below is a list of common prefixes and their meanings:

Prefix - Definition - Examples

a- in, on, of, up, to - abed, afoot - without, lacking - atheist, agnostic
ab- - from, away, off - abdicate, abjure
ad- - to, toward - advance
am- - friend, love - amicable, amatory
ante- - before, previous - antecedent, antedate
anti- - against, opposing - antipathy, antidote
auto- - self - autonomy, autobiography
belli- - war, warlike - bellicose
bene- - well, good - benefit, benefactor
bi- - two - bisect, biennial
bio- - life - biology, biosphere
cata- - down, away, thoroughly - catastrophe, cataclysm
chron- - time - chronometer, chronology
circum- - around - circumspect, circumference
com- - with, together, very - commotion, complicate
contra- contradict, contravene
cred- - belief, trust - credible, credit
de- - from - depart
dem- - people - demographics, democracy
dia- - through, across, apart - diameter, diagnose
dis- - away, off, down, not - dissent, disappear
epi- - upon - epilogue
equi- - equal, equally - equivalent
ex- - out - extract
for- - away, off, from - forget, forswear
fore- foretell, forefathers
homo- - same, equal - homogenized
hyper- - excessive, over - hypercritical, hypertension
hypo- - under, beneath - hypodermic, hypothesis
in- - in, into - intrude, invade - not, opposing - incapable, ineligible
inter- - among, between - intercede, interrupt
intra- - within - intramural, intrastate
magn- - large - magnitude, magnify
mal- - bad, poorly, not - malfunction
micr- - small - microbe, microscope
mis- misspell, misfire
mono- - one, single - monogamy, monologue
mort- - die, death - mortality, mortuary
neo- - new - neolithic, neoconservative
non- - not - nonentity, nonsense
ob- objection
omni- - all, everywhere - omniscient
ortho- - right, straight - orthogonal, orthodox
over- - above - overbearing
pan- - all, entire - panorama, pandemonium
para- - beside, beyond - parallel, paradox
per- - through - perceive, permit
peri- periscope, perimeter
phil- - love, like - philosophy, philanthropic
poly- - many - polymorphous, polygamous
post- - after, following - postpone, postscript
pre- prevent, preclude
prim- - first, early - primitive, primary
pro- forward, in place of propel, pronoun
re- - back, backward, again - revoke, recur
retro- - back, backward - retrospect, retrograde
semi- - half, partly - semicircle, semicolon
sub- subjugate, substitute
super- - above, extra - supersede, supernumerary
sym- - with, together - sympathy, symphony
trans- - across, beyond, over - transact, transport
ultra- - beyond, excessively - ultramodern, ultrasonic, ultraviolet
un- - not, reverse of unhappy, unlock
uni- - one - uniform, unity
vis- to see - visage, visible suffixes and their meanings:

Suffix
-able - able to, likely - capable, tolerable
-age - process, state, rank - passage, bondage
-ance - act, condition, fact - acceptance, vigilance
-arch - to rule - monarch, oligarch
-ard - one that does excessively - drunkard, wizard
-ate - having, showing - separate, desolate
-ation - action, state, result - occupation, starvation
-cy - state, condition - accuracy, captaincy
-dom - state, rank, condition - serfdom, wisdom
-en - cause to be, become - deepen, strengthen
-er - one who does - teacher, lawyer
-esce - become, grow, continue - convalesce, acquiesce
-esque - in the style of, like - picturesque, grotesque
-ess - feminine - waitress, lioness
-fic - making, causing - terrific, beatific
-ful - full of, marked by - thankful, beautiful
-fy - make, cause, cause to have - glorify, fortify
-hood - manhood, statehood
-ible - able, likely, fit - edible, possible, divisible
-ion - action, result, state - union, fusion
-ish - suggesting, like - churlish, childish
-ism - act, manner, doctrine - barbarism, socialism
-ist - doer, believer - monopolist, socialist
-ition - sedition, expedition
-ity - state, quality, condition - acidity, civility
-ize - make, cause to be, treat with sterilize, mechanize, criticize
-less - lacking, without - hopeless, countless
-like - like, similar - childlike, dreamlike
-logue - type of written/spoken language - prologue, monologue
-ly - like, of the nature of friendly, positively
-ment - means, result, action - refreshment, disappointment
-ness - quality, state - greatness, tallness
-or - doer, office, action - juror, elevator, honor
-ous - marked by, given to religious, riotous
-ship - the art or skill of statesmanship
-some - apt to, showing - tiresome, lonesome
-th - act, state, quality - warmth, width
-tude - quality, state, result - magnitude, fortitude
-ty - enmity, activity
-ward - in the direction of backward, homeward

The more words you are exposed to, the greater your vocabulary will become. By reading on a regular basis, you can see words in context in a variety of different ways. Based on experience, a person can recall how a word was used in the past and apply that knowledge to a new context. For example, a person may have seen the word gull used to mean a bird that is found near the seashore. However, a gull can also be a person who is easily tricked. If the word is used in context in reference to a character, the reader can recognize that the character is being called a bird that is not seen as extremely intelligent. What a reader knows about a word can be useful when making comparisons or figuring out the meaning of a new use of a word, as in figurative language, idioms, analogies, and multiple-meaning words.

Denotative and Connotative Meaning
When defining words in a text, words often have a meaning that is more than the dictionary definition. The denotative meaning of a word is the literal meaning. The connotative meaning goes beyond the denotative meaning to include the emotional reaction a word may invoke, due to associations the reader makes with the denotative meaning. The reader can differentiate between the denotative and connotative meanings by first recognizing when authors use each meaning. Most nonfiction, for example, is fact-based, and the authors typically do not use flowery, figurative language.

The reader can assume that the writer is using the denotative, or literal, meaning of words. In fiction, on the other hand, the author may be using the connotative meaning, as connotation is one form of figurative language. The reader should use context clues to determine whether the author is using the denotative or connotative meaning of a word.

Readers of all levels encounter words with which they are somewhat unfamiliar. The best way to define a word in context is to look for nearby words for clues. For instance, unfamiliar nouns are often accompanied by examples that furnish a definition. Consider the following sentence: 'Dave arrived at the party in hilarious garb: a leopard-print shirt, buckskin trousers, and high heels.' If a reader was unfamiliar with the meaning of garb, he could read the examples and quickly determine that the word means 'clothing.'

Examples will not always be this obvious. For instance, consider this sentence:
'Parsley, lemon, and flowers were just a few of items he used as garnishes.'

Here, the possibly unfamiliar word garnishes is exemplified by parsley, lemon, and flowers. Readers who have eaten in a variety of restaurants can identify a garnish as something used to decorate a plate.
It is sometimes possible to define an unfamiliar word by looking at the descriptive words in context. Consider the following sentence: 'Fred dragged the recalcitrant boy kicking and screaming up the stairs.' Dragged, kicking, and screaming all suggest that the boy does not want to go up the stairs. The reader may assume that recalcitrant means something like unwilling or protesting. In that example, an unfamiliar adjective was identified. It is perhaps more typical to use description to define an unfamiliar noun, as in this sentence: 'Don's wrinkled frown and constantly shaking fist identified him as a curmudgeon of the first order.' Don is described as having a 'wrinkled frown and constantly shaking fist,' suggesting that a curmudgeon must be a grumpy old man. Context does not always provide detailed information about the unfamiliar word, but can at least give the reader some clues.

Contrasts
In addition to looking at the context of a passage, readers can often use contrasts to define an unfamiliar word in context. In many sentences, the author will not describe the unfamiliar word directly, but will instead describe the opposite of the unfamiliar word. Of course, this provides information about the word the reader needs to define. Consider the following example: 'Despite his intelligence, Hector's low brow and bad posture made him look obtuse.' The author suggests that Hector's appearance was opposite to his actual intelligence. Therefore, obtuse must mean unintelligent or stupid. Here is another example: 'Despite the horrible weather, we were beatific about our trip to Alaska.' The word despite indicates that the speaker's feelings were at odds with the weather. Since the weather is described as 'horrible,' beatific must mean something pleasant.

Substitution
In some cases, there will be very few contextual clues to help a reader define an unfamiliar word. When this happens, one useful strategy is substitution. A good reader can brainstorm possible synonyms for the given word, and then substitute these words into the sentence. If the sentence and the surrounding passage continue to make sense, the substitution has revealed at least some information about the unfamiliar word. Consider the sentence, 'Frank's admonition rang in her ears as she climbed the mountain.' A reader unfamiliar with admonition might come up with some substitutions like 'vow,' 'promise,' 'advice,' 'complaint,' or 'compliment.' All of these words make general sense of the sentence, though their meanings are diverse. The process has suggested, however, that an admonition is some sort of message. The substitution strategy is rarely able to pinpoint a precise definition, but can be effective as a last resort.

Multiple Meaning Words
When a word has more than one meaning, it can be tricky to determine its meaning in a given sentence. Consider the verb cleave, which can mean either 'join' or 'separate.' When a reader comes upon this word, he/she must select the definition that makes the most sense. So, take as an example the following sentence: 'The birds cleaved together as they flew from the oak tree.' Immediately, the presence of the word together should suggest that in this sentence cleave is being used to mean 'join.'

A slightly more difficult example is 'Hermione's knife cleaved the bread cleanly.' It doesn't make sense for a knife to join bread together, so the word must be meant to indicate separation. Discovering the meaning of a word with multiple meanings requires the same tricks as defining an unknown word: looking for contextual clues and evaluating substituted words.

Literary Devices

Synonyms and Antonyms
Understanding how words relate to each other can often add meaning to a passage. This is explained by understanding synonyms (words that mean the same thing) and antonyms (words that mean the opposite). As an example, dry and arid are synonyms, and dry and wet are antonyms. There are many pairs of words that can be considered synonyms, despite having slightly different definitions. For instance, the words friendly and collegial can both be used to describe a warm interpersonal relationship, so it would be correct to call them synonyms. However, collegial
(kin to colleague) is more often used in reference to professional or academic relationships, while friendly has no such connotation.

Nevertheless, it would be appropriate to call these words synonyms. If the difference between the two words is too great, however, they may not be called synonyms. Hot and warm are not synonyms, for instance, because their meanings are too distinct. A good way to determine whether two words are synonyms is to substitute one for the other and see if the sentence means the same thing. Substituting warm for hot in a sentence would convey a different meaning.

Antonyms are opposites. Light and dark, up and down, right and left, good and bad: these are all sets of antonyms. It is important to distinguish between antonyms and pairs of words that are simply different. Black and gray, for instance, are not antonyms because gray is not the opposite of black. Black and white, on the other hand, are antonyms. Not every word has an antonym. Nouns in particular do not often have antonyms, as there is no 'opposite' for humans, places, objects, etc. On a standardized test, the questions related to antonyms are more likely to concern adjectives, which describe nouns. Some common adjectives include red, fast, skinny, and sweet. Of these four examples, only red lacks a group of obvious antonyms.

Figurative Language
Authors use many types of language devices to convey their meaning in a more descriptive or interesting way. Understanding these concepts will help you understand what you read. These devices are called figurative language—language that goes beyond the literal meaning of the words.

Descriptive language that evokes imagery in the reader's mind is one type of figurative language. Exaggeration and comparison are other types. Similes and metaphors are types of comparison, commonly found in poetry. An example of figurative language (a simile in this case) is: 'The child howled like a coyote when her mother told her to pick up the toys.' In this example, the child's howling is compared to that of a coyote. Figurative language is descriptive in nature and helps the reader understand the sound being made in this sentence.

Alliteration
Alliteration is a stylistic device, or literary technique, in which successive words (more strictly, stressed syllables) begin with the same sound or letter.  Alliteration is a frequent tool in poetry but it is also common in prose, particularly to highlight short phrases.  An example of alliteration could be 'thundering through the thickets,' in which the initial th sound is used in four consecutive words.  Especially in poetry, it contributes to euphony of the passage, lending it a musical air. It may act to humorous effect. Alliteration draws attention to itself, which may be a good or a bad thing. Authors should be conscious of the character of the sound to be repeated. In the above example, a th sound is somewhat difficult to make quickly in four consecutive words, so the phrase conveys a little of the difficulty of moving through tall grass. If the author is indeed trying to suggest this difficulty, then the alliteration is a success. Consider, however, the description of eyes as 'glassy globes of glitter.' This is definitely alliteration, since the initial gl sound is used three times. However, one might question whether this awkward sound is appropriate for a description of pretty eyes. The phrase is not especially pleasant to the ear, and therefore is probably not effective as alliteration.  Related to alliteration are assonance, the repetition of vowel sounds, and consonance, the repetition of consonant sounds.

Figure of Speech
A figure of speech, sometimes termed a rhetorical figure or device, or elocution, is a word or phrase that departs from straightforward, literal language. Figures of speech are often used and crafted for emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity. However, clarity may also suffer if figures of speech are overused or wrongly used, so caution is needed. A. an example of the figurative use of a word, consider the sentence, 'I am going to crown you.' It may mean:
I am going to place a literal crown on your head.
I am going to symbolically exalt you to the place of kingship.
I am going to punch you in the head with my clenched fist.
I am going to put a second checker on top of your checker to signify that it has become a king.

Metaphor
A metaphor is a type of figurative language in which the writer equates one thing with a different thing. In the sentence 'The bird was an arrow arcing through the sky,' the arrow is serving as a metaphor for the bird. The point of a metaphor is to encourage the reader to think about the thing being described in a different way. Using this example, we are being asked to envision the bird's flight as similar to the arc of an arrow, so we will imagine it to be swift and bending.
Metaphors are a way for the author to describe without being direct and obvious. Metaphors are a more lyrical and suggestive way of providing information. Note that the thing to which a metaphor refers will not always be mentioned explicitly by the author. For instance, consider the following description of a forest in winter: 'Swaying skeletons reached for the sky and groaned as the wind blew through them.' The author is clearly using skeletons as a metaphor for leafless trees. This metaphor creates a spooky tone while inspiring the reader's imagination.


Metonymy
Metonymy is referring to one thing in terms of another, closely related thing. This is similar to metaphor, but there is less distance between the description and the thing being described. An example of metonymy is referring to the news media as the 'press,' although the press is the device by which newspapers are printed. Metonymy is a way of referring to something without having to repeat its name constantly. Synecdoche, on the other hand, is referring to a whole by one of its parts. An example of synecdoche would be calling a police officer a 'badge.' Synecdoche, like metonymy, is a handy way of reference without having to overuse certain words. It also allows the writer to emphasize aspects of the thing being described. For instance, referring to businessmen as 'suits' suggests professionalism, conformity, and drabness.

Hyperbole
Hyperbole is overstatement for effect. The following sentence is an example of hyperbole: He jumped ten feet in the air when he heard the good news. Obviously, no person has the ability to jump ten feet in the air. The author hyperbolizes not because he believes the statement will be taken literally, but because the exaggeration conveys the extremity of emotion. Consider how much less colorful the sentence would be if the author simply said, 'He jumped when he heard the good news.'

Hyperbole can be ineffective if the author does not exaggerate enough. For instance, if the author wrote, 'He jumped two feet in the air when he heard the good news,' the reader might not be sure whether this is actually true or just hyperbole. In many situations this distinction will not really matter. However, an author should avoid confusing or vague hyperbole when he needs to maintain credibility or authority with readers.

Understatement
Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole—that is, describing something as less than it is for effect. As an example, consider a person who climbs Mount Everest and then describes the journey as 'a little stroll.' This catches the reader's attention because it is obviously understated. Like other types of figurative language, understatement has a range of uses. It may convey self-deprecation or modesty, as in the above example. Some people, however, might interpret understatement as false modesty, a deliberate attempt to call attention to the magnitude of what is being discussed. For example, if a woman is complimented on her enormous diamond engagement ring and says, 'Oh, this little thing?' her understatement might be viewed as snobby or insensitive. Understatement can have various effects, but it always calls attention to itself.

Simile and Metaphor
A simile is a figurative expression similar to a metaphor, though it requires the use of a distancing word like like or as.

Some examples are 'The sun was like an orange,' 'eager as a beaver,' and 'nimble as a mountain goat.' Because a simile includes like or as, it creates a little space between the description and the thing being described.

If an author says that a house was 'like a shoebox,' the tone is slightly different than if the author said that the house was a shoebox. In a simile, the author indicates an awareness that the description is not the same thing as the thing being described. In a metaphor, there is no such distinction, even though one may safely assume that the author is aware of it.

This is a subtle difference, but authors will alternately use metaphors and similes depending on their intended tone.

Personification
Another type of figurative language is personification. This is the description of the nonhuman as if it were human. Literally, the word means the process of making something into a person. There is a wide range of approaches to personification, from common expressions like 'whispering wind' to full novels like Animal Farm (George Orwell), in which the Bolshevik

Revolution is reenacted by farmyard animals. The general intent of personification is to describe things in a manner that will be comprehensible to readers. When an author states that a tree 'groans' in the wind, he/she of course does not mean that the tree is emitting a low, pained sound from its mouth. Instead, he/she means that the tree is making a noise similar to a human groan. This personification establishes a tone of sadness or suffering. A different tone would be established if the author said the tree was 'swaying' or 'dancing.'

Irony
Irony is a statement that suggests its opposite—an author or character says one thing but means another. For example, imagine a man walks in his front door, covered in mud and in tattered clothes. His wife asks him, 'How was your day?' and he says 'Great!' As in this example, irony often depends on information the reader obtains elsewhere. There is a fine distinction between irony and sarcasm. Irony is any statement in which the literal meaning is opposite from the intended meaning, while sarcasm is a statement of this type that is also insulting to the person at whom it is directed. A sarcastic statement suggests that the other person is stupid enough to believe an obviously false statement is true, while irony is a bit more subtle.