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Edexcel Politics A-Level: Liberalism

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Avg score: 81% • Most missed: “Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-97) - Key ideas”

What is Liberalism?
Liberalism is seen essentially as a product of The Enlightenment as it recognises that humans are rational creatures capable of understanding the world and making decisions for themselves. The defining feature of liberalism is its belief in individualism and freedom.

There are three content areas:
1. Liberalism: core ideas and principles
2. Differing views and tensions within liberalism
3. Liberal thinkers and their ideas.

Edexcel Politics A-Level: Liberalism

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25 Questions

1. Liberals - Society overview Classical view -> advocated what Both believe in what equality? Modern liberals believe in what is not enough to achieve ___

Classical liberals downplayed importance -> primarily a collection of individuals pursuing self-interests -> they advocated meritocracy where individuals succeed via hard work/ ability - Belief in foundational equality -> people are born equal and should be treated so (political and legal rights) - Modern liberals believe that this is not enough to achieve full equality and therefore advocate some state intervention (linked to +ve freedom) -> they believe society is more than a collection of individualsLiberals argue for limited gov, checks and balances & constitutionalism - With sop and checks and balances government is split into the executive, the judiciary and the legislature -> each given exclusive powers which are interwoven meaning they all have counterbalances to each other -> no single person/branch can dominate - Eg USAModern liberals believe in an enabling state (state should enable individuals to reach self-fufilment and therefore freedom) - Arrived at this position due to growing awareness of inequality during the 19th century - Modern liberals of the time saw the appalling working/living condititions and called for state welfare to bring about equality of opportunity - Argued that if some were disadvantaged due to social circumstances -> state should intervene with aim to correctLiberals tend to accept the state as necessary to avert disorder and protect vunerable from exploitation - However they mistrust power, seeing it as inevitably corrupting due to self-seeking nature of humans - 'power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely' - Lord Acton - Therefore liberals oppose the concentration of political power and advocate for limited gov

2. The state - Core Why do liberals accept the state? Why is power mistrusted Quote - Lord Acton Therefore..

Modern liberals believe in an enabling state (state should enable individuals to reach self-fufilment and therefore freedom) - Arrived at this position due to growing awareness of inequality during the 19th century - Modern liberals of the time saw the appalling working/living condititions and called for state welfare to bring about equality of opportunity - Argued that if some were disadvantaged due to social circumstances -> state should intervene with aim to correctLiberals argue for limited gov, checks and balances & constitutionalism - With sop and checks and balances government is split into the executive, the judiciary and the legislature -> each given exclusive powers which are interwoven meaning they all have counterbalances to each other -> no single person/branch can dominate - Eg USALiberals tend to accept the state as necessary to avert disorder and protect vunerable from exploitation - However they mistrust power, seeing it as inevitably corrupting due to self-seeking nature of humans - 'power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely' - Lord Acton - Therefore liberals oppose the concentration of political power and advocate for limited govClassical liberals downplayed importance -> primarily a collection of individuals pursuing self-interests -> they advocated meritocracy where individuals succeed via hard work/ ability - Belief in foundational equality -> people are born equal and should be treated so (political and legal rights) - Modern liberals believe that this is not enough to achieve full equality and therefore advocate some state intervention (linked to +ve freedom) -> they believe society is more than a collection of individuals

3. The state - How should government be organised? What do liberals argue for? Why is this an effective method?

Modern liberals believe in an enabling state (state should enable individuals to reach self-fufilment and therefore freedom) - Arrived at this position due to growing awareness of inequality during the 19th century - Modern liberals of the time saw the appalling working/living condititions and called for state welfare to bring about equality of opportunity - Argued that if some were disadvantaged due to social circumstances -> state should intervene with aim to correctLiberals tend to accept the state as necessary to avert disorder and protect vunerable from exploitation - However they mistrust power, seeing it as inevitably corrupting due to self-seeking nature of humans - 'power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely' - Lord Acton - Therefore liberals oppose the concentration of political power and advocate for limited govClassical liberals downplayed importance -> primarily a collection of individuals pursuing self-interests -> they advocated meritocracy where individuals succeed via hard work/ ability - Belief in foundational equality -> people are born equal and should be treated so (political and legal rights) - Modern liberals believe that this is not enough to achieve full equality and therefore advocate some state intervention (linked to +ve freedom) -> they believe society is more than a collection of individualsLiberals argue for limited gov, checks and balances & constitutionalism - With sop and checks and balances government is split into the executive, the judiciary and the legislature -> each given exclusive powers which are interwoven meaning they all have counterbalances to each other -> no single person/branch can dominate - Eg USA

4. Different views of the state - Modern liberals Believe in ___ state (explain) Arrived due to what historical background? Argued for what consequently

5. Locke - Freedom quote

6. John Locke (1623-1704) - 2 Key ideas Society __ Gov What type of thinker was he? Name of work?

Liberals tend to accept the state as necessary to avert disorder and protect vunerable from exploitation - However they mistrust power, seeing it as inevitably corrupting due to self-seeking nature of humans - 'power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely' - Lord Acton - Therefore liberals oppose the concentration of political power and advocate for limited govClassical liberals downplayed importance -> primarily a collection of individuals pursuing self-interests -> they advocated meritocracy where individuals succeed via hard work/ ability - Belief in foundational equality -> people are born equal and should be treated so (political and legal rights) - Modern liberals believe that this is not enough to achieve full equality and therefore advocate some state intervention (linked to +ve freedom) -> they believe society is more than a collection of individualsLiberals argue for limited gov, checks and balances & constitutionalism - With sop and checks and balances government is split into the executive, the judiciary and the legislature -> each given exclusive powers which are interwoven meaning they all have counterbalances to each other -> no single person/branch can dominate - Eg USA1. Society, state and government are based on a voluntary agreement or contract 2. Government should be limited, based on consent from below - Classical liberal thinker - Wrote Two Treatises of Government

7. Social darwinism

8. Liberal key thinkers (7)

Liberals argue for limited gov, checks and balances & constitutionalism - With sop and checks and balances government is split into the executive, the judiciary and the legislature -> each given exclusive powers which are interwoven meaning they all have counterbalances to each other -> no single person/branch can dominate - Eg USALiberals tend to accept the state as necessary to avert disorder and protect vunerable from exploitation - However they mistrust power, seeing it as inevitably corrupting due to self-seeking nature of humans - 'power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely' - Lord Acton - Therefore liberals oppose the concentration of political power and advocate for limited gov1. John Locke - Classical liberal - Social contract theory -> state was created to serve the individual not the other way around, hypothetical agreement - Idea based on the liberal assumption of human rationality - 'Where there is no law, there is no freedom' - Advocate of a limited government which must be restrained by law - Gov derives its legitimacy from the people and should govern in accordance with natural rights - Two Treatises of Government 2. John Stuart Mill - Classical liberal - Harm principle -> individuals should be free to do anything except harm other individuals - Highlighted the importance of tolerance, evidenced in his advocation for the enfranchisement of women as an MP (radical view at the time) - In favour of an inheritance tax which would limit the natural advantages handed to the aristocracy 3. John Rawls - Modern liberal - Society must guarantee a life worth living for all - Attempted to reconcile individual freedom and the avoidence of excessive inequality within society - Veil of ignorance hypothesis - Rejected both communism and unregulated capitalism as too extreme and instead argued for a middle ground where the state distributes wealth to those who are suffering in poverty - A Theory of Justice 4. Betty Friedan - Men and women are just as capable of one-another yet oppressive laws and social views restrict them - Women are stigmatised into not partaking in a career - The state must do more to ensure equal workplace rights, her philosophy was grounded in the liberal belief of equality of individuals, rights and opportunity 5. William Gladstone - Liberal PM - Introduced competitive examinations for the civil service to discourage nepotism - Therefore advocating for a meritocratic society and greater equality of opportunity 6. Sir William Beveridge - Wrote The Beveridge Report - Claimed the state should help its citizens 'from cradle to grave' - Helped create the Labour Party and the NHS 7. Jeremy Bentham - Concept of liberty central to school of thought utilitarianism, he argued that individuals were capable of deciding what was in their best interests and were motived by achieving their own goals - Benthen argued that individuals should be free to pursue their own interests given they are not infringing upon the freedom of othersClassical liberals downplayed importance -> primarily a collection of individuals pursuing self-interests -> they advocated meritocracy where individuals succeed via hard work/ ability - Belief in foundational equality -> people are born equal and should be treated so (political and legal rights) - Modern liberals believe that this is not enough to achieve full equality and therefore advocate some state intervention (linked to +ve freedom) -> they believe society is more than a collection of individuals

9. Equality and social justice Liberals reject what and thus say what should be rewarded? The resulting acts as what? A good _____ Eg liberal PM ____

10. John Rawls Key ideas on society (2)

1. Society must be just and guarantee each citizen a life worth living 2. A fair society is one in which the difference in outcomes for the richest and poorest is kept to a minimumLiberals tend to accept the state as necessary to avert disorder and protect vunerable from exploitation - However they mistrust power, seeing it as inevitably corrupting due to self-seeking nature of humans - 'power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely' - Lord Acton - Therefore liberals oppose the concentration of political power and advocate for limited govLiberals argue for limited gov, checks and balances & constitutionalism - With sop and checks and balances government is split into the executive, the judiciary and the legislature -> each given exclusive powers which are interwoven meaning they all have counterbalances to each other -> no single person/branch can dominate - Eg USAClassical liberals downplayed importance -> primarily a collection of individuals pursuing self-interests -> they advocated meritocracy where individuals succeed via hard work/ ability - Belief in foundational equality -> people are born equal and should be treated so (political and legal rights) - Modern liberals believe that this is not enough to achieve full equality and therefore advocate some state intervention (linked to +ve freedom) -> they believe society is more than a collection of individuals

11. The state - Devolution

Liberal suspicion of concentrated political power leads to their endorsement of devolution where power is transferred to regional bodies - Occured in the UK with the Welsh assembly and Scottish Parliament - Reduces chance of the state infringing on civil liberties if their power is more spreadLiberals tend to accept the state as necessary to avert disorder and protect vunerable from exploitation - However they mistrust power, seeing it as inevitably corrupting due to self-seeking nature of humans - 'power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely' - Lord Acton - Therefore liberals oppose the concentration of political power and advocate for limited govClassical liberals downplayed importance -> primarily a collection of individuals pursuing self-interests -> they advocated meritocracy where individuals succeed via hard work/ ability - Belief in foundational equality -> people are born equal and should be treated so (political and legal rights) - Modern liberals believe that this is not enough to achieve full equality and therefore advocate some state intervention (linked to +ve freedom) -> they believe society is more than a collection of individualsLiberals argue for limited gov, checks and balances & constitutionalism - With sop and checks and balances government is split into the executive, the judiciary and the legislature -> each given exclusive powers which are interwoven meaning they all have counterbalances to each other -> no single person/branch can dominate - Eg USA

12. Equality and social justice What is equality of opportunity and foundational equality?

Liberals place emphasis on equality of opportunity meaning all individuals should have an equal chance in life whether rise or fall - Foundational equality -> a belief in formal equality, rights that all humans should enjoy by virtue of being born, equal social and political rights in societyLiberals tend to accept the state as necessary to avert disorder and protect vunerable from exploitation - However they mistrust power, seeing it as inevitably corrupting due to self-seeking nature of humans - 'power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely' - Lord Acton - Therefore liberals oppose the concentration of political power and advocate for limited govLiberals argue for limited gov, checks and balances & constitutionalism - With sop and checks and balances government is split into the executive, the judiciary and the legislature -> each given exclusive powers which are interwoven meaning they all have counterbalances to each other -> no single person/branch can dominate - Eg USAClassical liberals downplayed importance -> primarily a collection of individuals pursuing self-interests -> they advocated meritocracy where individuals succeed via hard work/ ability - Belief in foundational equality -> people are born equal and should be treated so (political and legal rights) - Modern liberals believe that this is not enough to achieve full equality and therefore advocate some state intervention (linked to +ve freedom) -> they believe society is more than a collection of individuals

13. Liberals - Human nature overview See people as what?? Stress what People should be free to ___ enjoying ___ Tolerant Classical / modern view of freedom

Liberals tend to accept the state as necessary to avert disorder and protect vunerable from exploitation - However they mistrust power, seeing it as inevitably corrupting due to self-seeking nature of humans - 'power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely' - Lord Acton - Therefore liberals oppose the concentration of political power and advocate for limited govClassical liberals downplayed importance -> primarily a collection of individuals pursuing self-interests -> they advocated meritocracy where individuals succeed via hard work/ ability - Belief in foundational equality -> people are born equal and should be treated so (political and legal rights) - Modern liberals believe that this is not enough to achieve full equality and therefore advocate some state intervention (linked to +ve freedom) -> they believe society is more than a collection of individualsSee people as rational individuals capable of percieving their own self interests - Stress +ve potential of human nature - People should be free to make most of their talents, enjoying equality of opportunity - People should be tolerant of different views - Classical liberals believe people should only be restricted when they threaten liberty of others (-ve freedom) - Modern liberals are more catious of social injustice and therefore favour state to play a small role in reducing thisLiberals argue for limited gov, checks and balances & constitutionalism - With sop and checks and balances government is split into the executive, the judiciary and the legislature -> each given exclusive powers which are interwoven meaning they all have counterbalances to each other -> no single person/branch can dominate - Eg USA

14. John Stuart Mill - Core principles What was his most important contribution? He was in favour of what in order to promote fairness? What were his views on tolerance and give an example

Liberals tend to accept the state as necessary to avert disorder and protect vunerable from exploitation - However they mistrust power, seeing it as inevitably corrupting due to self-seeking nature of humans - 'power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely' - Lord Acton - Therefore liberals oppose the concentration of political power and advocate for limited govMost important contribution was the harm principle (-ve freedom) which expanded into his advocation for a strictly limited role of government - In favour of an inheritance tax which would limit the natural advantages given to those in the upper classes - Mill upheld the idea of tolerance and the right for everyone to have the opportunity to express their view -> notably he campaigned for equal voting rights for men and women which was especially radical at the timeClassical liberals downplayed importance -> primarily a collection of individuals pursuing self-interests -> they advocated meritocracy where individuals succeed via hard work/ ability - Belief in foundational equality -> people are born equal and should be treated so (political and legal rights) - Modern liberals believe that this is not enough to achieve full equality and therefore advocate some state intervention (linked to +ve freedom) -> they believe society is more than a collection of individualsLiberals argue for limited gov, checks and balances & constitutionalism - With sop and checks and balances government is split into the executive, the judiciary and the legislature -> each given exclusive powers which are interwoven meaning they all have counterbalances to each other -> no single person/branch can dominate - Eg USA

15. John Rawls - Core What was his book called and what did he attempt to reconcile? He accepted that there would always be __ Describe his hypothesis eg veil of ignorance Rejected which 2 extremes

Classical liberals downplayed importance -> primarily a collection of individuals pursuing self-interests -> they advocated meritocracy where individuals succeed via hard work/ ability - Belief in foundational equality -> people are born equal and should be treated so (political and legal rights) - Modern liberals believe that this is not enough to achieve full equality and therefore advocate some state intervention (linked to +ve freedom) -> they believe society is more than a collection of individualsLiberals tend to accept the state as necessary to avert disorder and protect vunerable from exploitation - However they mistrust power, seeing it as inevitably corrupting due to self-seeking nature of humans - 'power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely' - Lord Acton - Therefore liberals oppose the concentration of political power and advocate for limited govLiberals argue for limited gov, checks and balances & constitutionalism - With sop and checks and balances government is split into the executive, the judiciary and the legislature -> each given exclusive powers which are interwoven meaning they all have counterbalances to each other -> no single person/branch can dominate - Eg USABest known for A Theory of Justice in which he attempted to reconcile individual freedom and avoidence of excessive inequality in society - He accepted there would always be a degree of inequality, but said that society should aim to minimise the difference in the outcomes for best off and poorest - Hypothesised a situation where a 'veil of ignorance' would be placed over a group of 'unequal' people in different classes so they were unaware of their wealth and background -> he believed that upon deciding how society should be like individuals would want to mitigate risk and agree that natural rights should be established with the highest standard of living possible in case they were those disadvantaged - Rejected two extremes of communism and unregulated capitalism instead favouring a middle ground where the state distributes wealth to those who are suffering in poverty

16. Differing views of freedom - Modern liberals Believe what is insufficient Can amount to ' x ' Those disadvantaged ___ Why modern libs endorse x -> explain

Liberals tend to accept the state as necessary to avert disorder and protect vunerable from exploitation - However they mistrust power, seeing it as inevitably corrupting due to self-seeking nature of humans - 'power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely' - Lord Acton - Therefore liberals oppose the concentration of political power and advocate for limited govClassical liberals downplayed importance -> primarily a collection of individuals pursuing self-interests -> they advocated meritocracy where individuals succeed via hard work/ ability - Belief in foundational equality -> people are born equal and should be treated so (political and legal rights) - Modern liberals believe that this is not enough to achieve full equality and therefore advocate some state intervention (linked to +ve freedom) -> they believe society is more than a collection of individualsLiberals argue for limited gov, checks and balances & constitutionalism - With sop and checks and balances government is split into the executive, the judiciary and the legislature -> each given exclusive powers which are interwoven meaning they all have counterbalances to each other -> no single person/branch can dominate - Eg USABelieve that -ve freedom is necessary but not sufficient for a good society - Cam amount to little apart from 'freedom to starve' to those disadvantaged - Those disadvantaged in society need assistance via the state to be truly free -> This is why modern liberals endorse +ve freedom -> freedom defined as self-realisation - Limited gov intervention can nurture people towards self-realisation and therefore freedom - Modern liberals favour developmental individualism

17. What are the differences between classical and modern liberals? Freedom? Society? State?

18. Different views of the state - Common ideas Both endorse what Key liberal reforms in uk ____ theory is ?

Classical liberals downplayed importance -> primarily a collection of individuals pursuing self-interests -> they advocated meritocracy where individuals succeed via hard work/ ability - Belief in foundational equality -> people are born equal and should be treated so (political and legal rights) - Modern liberals believe that this is not enough to achieve full equality and therefore advocate some state intervention (linked to +ve freedom) -> they believe society is more than a collection of individualsSome common ground (classic/modern) - Both endorse devolution, protection of civil liberties - Major liberal reforms in the UK include Human Rights Act and the Freedom of Information Act - Liberals do not love the state -> favour mechanistic theory of state which means it was created to serve the people (not visa-versa)Liberals tend to accept the state as necessary to avert disorder and protect vunerable from exploitation - However they mistrust power, seeing it as inevitably corrupting due to self-seeking nature of humans - 'power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely' - Lord Acton - Therefore liberals oppose the concentration of political power and advocate for limited govLiberals argue for limited gov, checks and balances & constitutionalism - With sop and checks and balances government is split into the executive, the judiciary and the legislature -> each given exclusive powers which are interwoven meaning they all have counterbalances to each other -> no single person/branch can dominate - Eg USA

19. Individualism (human nature) - Classical liberal view ____ individualism -> minimises what? Collection of ?

Liberals tend to accept the state as necessary to avert disorder and protect vunerable from exploitation - However they mistrust power, seeing it as inevitably corrupting due to self-seeking nature of humans - 'power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely' - Lord Acton - Therefore liberals oppose the concentration of political power and advocate for limited govLiberals argue for limited gov, checks and balances & constitutionalism - With sop and checks and balances government is split into the executive, the judiciary and the legislature -> each given exclusive powers which are interwoven meaning they all have counterbalances to each other -> no single person/branch can dominate - Eg USAClassical liberals downplayed importance -> primarily a collection of individuals pursuing self-interests -> they advocated meritocracy where individuals succeed via hard work/ ability - Belief in foundational equality -> people are born equal and should be treated so (political and legal rights) - Modern liberals believe that this is not enough to achieve full equality and therefore advocate some state intervention (linked to +ve freedom) -> they believe society is more than a collection of individualsegoistical individualism -> view that all people are essentially self-seeking & self-reliant -> minimises importance of society, just a collection of independent individuals

20. Liberty - Positive freedom

Liberals tend to accept the state as necessary to avert disorder and protect vunerable from exploitation - However they mistrust power, seeing it as inevitably corrupting due to self-seeking nature of humans - 'power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely' - Lord Acton - Therefore liberals oppose the concentration of political power and advocate for limited govLiberals argue for limited gov, checks and balances & constitutionalism - With sop and checks and balances government is split into the executive, the judiciary and the legislature -> each given exclusive powers which are interwoven meaning they all have counterbalances to each other -> no single person/branch can dominate - Eg USAThought that people are both individual and social by nature - Individuals should be free to control their own destiny and develop their talents to achieve self-fufilment -> some limited state intervention could act as guidence to reach that levelClassical liberals downplayed importance -> primarily a collection of individuals pursuing self-interests -> they advocated meritocracy where individuals succeed via hard work/ ability - Belief in foundational equality -> people are born equal and should be treated so (political and legal rights) - Modern liberals believe that this is not enough to achieve full equality and therefore advocate some state intervention (linked to +ve freedom) -> they believe society is more than a collection of individuals

21. Betty Friedan - Femininsm Who was she and what did she believe in? How was this path for women set and then reinforced What did she campaign for? How was her philosophy grounded in liberal views?

Liberals tend to accept the state as necessary to avert disorder and protect vunerable from exploitation - However they mistrust power, seeing it as inevitably corrupting due to self-seeking nature of humans - 'power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely' - Lord Acton - Therefore liberals oppose the concentration of political power and advocate for limited govAmerican liberal feminist who believed that conditioning rather than biology led women to become wives and homemakers, rather than pursuing a career - Path was set early by school / family and then reinforced by social, cultural and religious pressures - Friedan campaigned for wider opportunities for women and greater workplace equality - Philosophy grounded in liberal belief of equality of individuals, rights and opportunityClassical liberals downplayed importance -> primarily a collection of individuals pursuing self-interests -> they advocated meritocracy where individuals succeed via hard work/ ability - Belief in foundational equality -> people are born equal and should be treated so (political and legal rights) - Modern liberals believe that this is not enough to achieve full equality and therefore advocate some state intervention (linked to +ve freedom) -> they believe society is more than a collection of individualsLiberals argue for limited gov, checks and balances & constitutionalism - With sop and checks and balances government is split into the executive, the judiciary and the legislature -> each given exclusive powers which are interwoven meaning they all have counterbalances to each other -> no single person/branch can dominate - Eg USA

22. Liberal democracy - Social contract Who and where did the idea come from? Describe the idea

23. The state - Laissez-faire Minimal state Liberals of ____ century Influenced by whom

Liberals tend to accept the state as necessary to avert disorder and protect vunerable from exploitation - However they mistrust power, seeing it as inevitably corrupting due to self-seeking nature of humans - 'power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely' - Lord Acton - Therefore liberals oppose the concentration of political power and advocate for limited govClassical liberals downplayed importance -> primarily a collection of individuals pursuing self-interests -> they advocated meritocracy where individuals succeed via hard work/ ability - Belief in foundational equality -> people are born equal and should be treated so (political and legal rights) - Modern liberals believe that this is not enough to achieve full equality and therefore advocate some state intervention (linked to +ve freedom) -> they believe society is more than a collection of individualsLiberals argue for limited gov, checks and balances & constitutionalism - With sop and checks and balances government is split into the executive, the judiciary and the legislature -> each given exclusive powers which are interwoven meaning they all have counterbalances to each other -> no single person/branch can dominate - Eg USAEmphasis on minimal state also has a role in economic dimension - Liberals in the 18/19th century believed in laissez-faire capitalism -> earliest comprehensive description of this system was by Adam Smith in his work The Wealth of Nations -> described an 'invisible hand' of supply and demand which should be left be in order to gain economic prosperity

24. Individualism - Introduction Libers stress x>y Immanuel Kant argued all individuals are what? -> people are... ...'categorical imperative'

Liberals tend to accept the state as necessary to avert disorder and protect vunerable from exploitation - However they mistrust power, seeing it as inevitably corrupting due to self-seeking nature of humans - 'power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely' - Lord Acton - Therefore liberals oppose the concentration of political power and advocate for limited govClassical liberals downplayed importance -> primarily a collection of individuals pursuing self-interests -> they advocated meritocracy where individuals succeed via hard work/ ability - Belief in foundational equality -> people are born equal and should be treated so (political and legal rights) - Modern liberals believe that this is not enough to achieve full equality and therefore advocate some state intervention (linked to +ve freedom) -> they believe society is more than a collection of individualsLiberals argue for limited gov, checks and balances & constitutionalism - With sop and checks and balances government is split into the executive, the judiciary and the legislature -> each given exclusive powers which are interwoven meaning they all have counterbalances to each other -> no single person/branch can dominate - Eg USALiberals stress importance of individual over claims of any social group/collective - Immanuel Kant (enlightenment thinker): argued all individuals are unique and have equal worth -> people are not instruments for achievement of a common goal but should be free to perform an action for their own sake ('categorical imperative')

25. The state - A bill of rights

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❤ If you liked Fatskills, consider supporting us by checking out The Life Manuals You Never Got.

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All trademarks, logos and brand names are the property of their respective owners. All company, product and service names used in this website are for identification purposes only. Use of these names, trademarks and brands does not imply endorsement.

About | Explore | User Guide | Topics | Subjects | Doubt Solver | Career Aptitude Test | Answers | Free Tools | What Should We Know?
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