1. Effects of aging on Heart Rate

2. Primarily stimulates the beta 1 receptors of the heart which results in an increase in myocardial contractility and heart rate. In addition, it also has some simultaneous effects on both the beta 2 and alpha 1 receptors. The simultaneous stimulation of these two receptors by _______________ results in a cancellation of their individual functions and thus the vascular tone does not change.

3. A decrease in the heart rate or stroke volume will ___________ cardiac output and vice versa.

4. The major causes of _______________ include hypertension induced myocardial hypertrophy and myocardial ischemia with resultant ventricular remodeling. Hypertrophy in ischemia cause a decreased ability of the myocytes to actively pump calcium from the site is all, resulting in impaired relaxation. Other causes include aortic valvular disease, mitral valve disease, pericardial disease, and cardiomyopathies. Diabetes also increases the risk for _________________.

5. The high pressure prevents the cerebral arterioles from regulating blood flow to the cerebral arterioles, thus causing a high hydrostatic pressure in the cerebrum. This forces fluid out into the interstium and causes cerebral edema.

6. After 10 seconds of occluded blood flow the myocytes become __________. Oxygen reserves are used up.

7. _____________________ are generated by the bundle of His or the purkinje fibers. They occur in five phases labeled phase zero through phase four.

8. These people will experience a decrease in cardiac output by about 20% and this will cause dyspnea, dizziness and fatigue. The stasis of blood in the atria is what is responsible for the development of a thrombus. EKG findings show a rapid, irregular rhythm without P waves.

9. Risk factors include hypertensive heart disease, coronary artery disease, valvular heart disease, heart failure, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, congenital heart disease, gout, CKD, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and obesity.

10. Ideal HDL level?

11. Right to left sided shunt: An SaO2 _______________ is indicative of a higher amount of blood being shunted and will result in cyanosis.

12. They will have a crescendo-decrescendo systolic murmur. They are at an increased risk of developing an embolus.

13. Ventricular action potentials: Phase ___ results in a rapid repolarization with massive K+ efflux. The voltage gated K+ channels open and the voltage gated Ca+ channels close which causes the rapid repolarization.

14. In normal physiology the heart consumes fatty acids as it main source of energy. A failing heart has an _____________________________________________, and it is therefore unable to metabolize fatty acids for energy. The myocytes then begin using glucose for energy. _______________ increases and there is a decrease in mitochondrial activity. This lack of energy coupled with the high catecholamine levels causes an altered fatty acid oxidation and decreased effective ATP use and production.

15. Right to left sided shunt: If the SaO2 remains at ________________ cyanosis is not likely to develop because the shunting is minimal.

16. Ventricular action potentials: Phase ___ represents the resting membrane potential of -85mV. There is high potassium permeability from the potassium channels.

17. Fetal circulation: The __________________ connects to the hepatic circulation but also connects to the inferior vena cava by the ductus venosus.

18. Does digitalis increase or decrease contraction?

19. Effects of aging on left ventricle

20. Risk factors for atrial septal defect.

21. The onset of _______ may be triggered by cardiovascular surgery, acute MI, thyrotoxicosis, pericardial disease, hyperthyroidism, pulmonary pathologies, low magnesium and caffeine.

22. As a result, blood in the left ventricle backs up into the left atrium during ventricular systole. Over time this will lead to left atrial dilation/hypertrophy, increased pulmonary vascular pressure and volume and pulmonary edema. The most common cause is mitral valve prolapse. Other causes include ruptured papillary muscle dysfunction, infective endocarditis, dilated cardiomyopathy, myocarditis, connective tissue disorders, nonbacterial endocarditis.

23. Clinical manifestations of NSTEMI?

24. When an individual has CAD and stable angina, the blood flow at rest is sufficient to meet the myocardial oxygen needs; however, when ____________ occurs, the workload of the heart increases and therefore the O2 requirements increase but the blood flow does not.

25. During fetal growth and development, the manner in which blood flows is different than it is after birth. The blood is ___________________________________________. There are different channels which are open to allow for blood flow and after birth the channels close and/or develop into various ligaments.