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Relationships Between Ideas Even if the author includes plenty of information to support his or her point, the writing is only coherent when the information is in a logical order. First, the author should introduce the main idea, whether for a paragraph, a section, or the entire piece. Then they should present evidence to support the main idea by using transitional language. This shows the reader how the information relates to the main idea and to the sentences around it. The author should then take time to interpret the information, making sure necessary connections are obvious to the reader. Finally, the author can summarize the information in a closing section.
Although most writing follows this pattern, it isn’t a set rule.
Sometimes authors change the order for effect. For example, the author can begin with a surprising piece of supporting information to grab the reader’s attention, and then transition to the main idea. Thus, if a passage doesn’t follow the logical order, don’t immediately assume it’s wrong.
However, most writing usually settles into a logical sequence after a nontraditional beginning.
Depending on what the author is attempting to accomplish, certain formats or text structures work better than others. For example, a sequence structure might work for narration but not when identifying similarities and differences between dissimilar concepts. Similarly, a comparison-contrast structure is not useful for narration. It is the author’s job to put the right information in the correct format.
Readers should be familiar with the five main literary structures: 1. Sequence structure (sometimes referred to as the order structure) is when the order of events proceed in a predictable order. In many cases, this means the text goes through the plot elements: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. Readers are introduced to characters, setting, and conflict in the exposition. In the rising action, there’s an increase in tension and suspense. The climax is the height of tension and the point of no return. Tension decreases during the falling action. In the resolution, any conflicts presented in the exposition are solved, and the story concludes. An informative text that is structured sequentially will often go in order from one step to the next.
2. In the problem-solution structure, authors identify a potential problem and suggest a solution. This form of writing is usually divided into two paragraphs and can be found in informational texts. For example, cell phone, cable, and satellite providers use this structure in manuals to help customers troubleshoot or identify problems with services or products.
3. When authors want to discuss similarities and differences between separate concepts, they arrange thoughts in a comparison-contrast paragraph structure. Venn diagrams are an effective graphic organizer for comparison-contrast structures, because they feature two overlapping circles that can be used to organize similarities and differences. A comparison-contrast essay organizes one paragraph based on similarities and another based on differences. A comparison-contrast essay can also be arranged with the similarities and differences of individual traits addressed within individual paragraphs. Words such as however, but, and nevertheless help signal a contrast in ideas.
4. Descriptive writing structure is designed to appeal to the reader’s senses. Much like an artist who constructs a painting, good descriptive writing builds an image in the reader’s mind by appealing to the five senses: sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell. However, overly descriptive writing can become tedious; sparse descriptions can make settings and characters seem flat. Good authors strike a balance by applying descriptions only to passages, characters, and settings that are integral to the plot.
5. Passages that use the cause and effect structure are simply asking why by demonstrating some type of connection between ideas. Words such as if, since, because, then, or consequently indicate a relationship. By switching the order of a complex sentence, the writer can rearrange the emphasis on different clauses. Saying If Sheryl is late, we’ll miss the dance is different from saying We’ll miss the dance if Sheryl is late. One emphasizes Sheryl’s tardiness while the other emphasizes missing the dance. Paragraphs can also be arranged in a cause and effect format. Since the format—before and after—is sequential, it is useful when authors wish to discuss the impact of choices. Researchers often apply this paragraph structure to the scientific method. Comparison and Contrast One writing device authors use is comparison and contrast. Comparison is when authors take objects and show how they are the same. Contrast is when authors take objects and show how they differ. Comparison and contrast essays are mostly written in nonfiction form. There are common words used when authors compare or contrast.
The list below will show you some of these words:
Comparison Words and Phrases: - Similar to - Alike - As well as - Both
Contrast Words and Phrases: - Although - On the other hand - Different from - However - As opposed to - More than - Less than - On the contrary Cause and Effect Cause and effect is a common writing device. A cause is why something happens. An effect is something that happens because of the cause. Many times, authors use key words to show cause and effect, such as because, so, therefore, without, now, then, and since. For example: “Because of the sun shower, a rainbow appeared.” In this sentence, due to the sun shower (the cause), a rainbow appeared (the effect). Analogy An analogyis a comparison between two things. Sometimes the two things are very different from one another. Authors often use analogies to add meaning and make ideas relatable in texts. There are two types of analogies: metaphors and similes. Metaphors compare two things that are not similar. Similes also compare two unlike things but use the words like or as. For example, “In the library, students are asked to be as quiet as a mouse.” Clearly, students and mice are very different. However, when students are asked to be as quiet as a mouse, readers understand that they are being asked to be absolutely silent. Transitional Words and Phrases There are approximately 200 transitional words and phrases that are commonly used in the English language. Below are lists of common transition words and phrases used throughout transitions.
Time - after - before - during - in the middle Example about to be Given - for example - in fact - for instance Compare - likewise - also Contrast - however - yet - but Addition - and - also - furthermore - moreover Logical Relationships - if - then - therefore - as a result - since Steps in a Process - first - second - last
Transitional words and phrases are important writing devices because they connect sentences and paragraphs. Transitional words and phrases present logical order to writing and provide more coherent meaning to readers.
Transition words can be categorized based on the relationships they create between ideas: - General order: signaling elaboration of an idea to emphasize a point—e.g., for example, for instance, to demonstrate, including, such as, in other words, that is, in fact, also, furthermore, likewise, and, truly, so, surely, certainly, obviously, doubtless - Chronological order: referencing the time frame in which main event or idea occurs—e.g., before, after, first, while, soon, shortly thereafter, meanwhile - Numerical order/order of importance: indicating that related ideas, supporting details, or events will be described in a sequence, possibly in order of importance—e.g., first, second, also, finally, another, in addition, equally important, less importantly, most significantly, the main reason, last but not least - Spatial order: referring to the space and location of something or where things are located in relation to each other—e.g., inside, outside, above, below, within, close, under, over, far, next to, adjacent to - Cause and effect order: signaling a causal relationship between events or ideas—e.g., thus, therefore, since, resulted in, for this reason, as a result, consequently, hence, for, so - Compare and contrast order: identifying the similarities and differences between two or more objects, ideas, or lines of thought—e.g., like, as, similarly, equally, just as, unlike, however, but, although, conversely, on the other hand, on the contrary - Summary order: indicating that a particular idea is coming to a close—e.g., in conclusion, to sum up, in other words, ultimately, above all The Author’s Purpose No matter the genre or format, all authors are writing to persuade, inform, entertain, or express feelings. Often, these purposes are blended, with one dominating the rest. It’s useful to learn to recognize the author’s intent. Persuasive writing is used to persuade or convince readers of something. It often contains two elements: the argument and the counterargument. The argument takes a stance on an issue, while the counterargument pokes holes in the opposition’s stance. Authors rely on logic, emotion, and writer credibility to persuade readers to agree with them. If readers are opposed to the stance before reading, they are unlikely to adopt that stance. However, those who are undecided or committed to the same stance are more likely to agree with the author. Informative writing tries to teach or inform. Workplace manuals, instructor lessons, statistical reports, and cookbooks are examples of informative texts. Informative writing is usually based on facts and is often void of emotion and persuasion. Informative texts generally contain statistics, charts, and graphs. Though most informative texts lack a persuasive agenda, readers must examine the text carefully to determine whether one exists within a given passage. Stories or narratives are designed to entertain. When you go to the movies, you often want to escape for a few hours, not necessarily to think critically. Entertaining writing is designed to delight and engage the reader. However, sometimes this type of writing can be woven into more serious materials, such as persuasive or informative writing to hook the reader before transitioning into a more scholarly discussion.
Emotional writing works to evoke the reader’s feelings, such as anger, euphoria, or sadness. The connection between reader and author is an attempt to cause the reader to share the author’s intended emotion or tone. Sometimes in order to make a piece more poignant, the author simply wants readers to feel emotion that the author has felt. Other times, the author attempts to persuade or manipulate the reader into adopting his stance. While it’s okay to sympathize with the author, readers should be aware of the individual's underlying intent. Appealing to the Readers’ Emotions Authors write to captivate the attention of their readers. Oftentimes, authors will appeal to their readers’ emotions to convince or persuade their audience, especially in when trying to win weak arguments that lack factual evidence. Authors may tell sob stories or use bandwagon approaches in their writing to tap into the readers’ emotions.
For example, “Everyone is voting yes” or “He only has two months to live” are statements that can tug at the heartstrings of readers.
Authors may use other tactics, such as name-calling or advertising, to lead their readers into believing something is true or false. These emotional pleas are clear signs that the authors do not have a favorable point and that they are trying to distract the readers from the fact that their argument is factually weak. The Author’s Tone Style, tone, and mood are often thought to be the same thing. Though they’re closely related, there are important differences to keep in mind. The easiest way to do this is to remember that style “creates and affects” tone and mood. More specifically, style is how the writer uses words to create the desired tone and mood for their writing. Tone Tone refers to the writer’s attitude toward the subject matter. Tone is usually explained in terms of a work of fiction. For example, the tone conveys how the writer feels about their characters and the situations in which they’re involved. Nonfiction writing is sometimes thought to have no tone at all; however, this is incorrect. A lot of nonfiction writing has a neutral tone, which is an important tone for the writer to take. A neutral tone demonstrates that the writer is presenting a topic impartially and letting the information speak for itself. On the other hand, nonfiction writing can be just as effective and appropriate if the tone isn’t neutral.
For instance, take this example involving seat belts: Seat belts save more lives than any other automobile safety feature. Many studies show that airbags save lives as well; however, not all cars have airbags. For instance, some older cars don’t. Furthermore, air bags aren’t entirely reliable. For example, studies show that in 15% of accidents airbags don’t deploy as designed, but, on the other hand, seat belt malfunctions are extremely rare. The number of highway fatalities has plummeted since laws requiring seat belt usage were enacted.
In this passage, the writer mostly chooses to retain a neutral tone when presenting information. If the writer would instead include their own personal experience of losing a friend or family member in a car accident, the tone would change dramatically. The tone would no longer be neutral and would show that the writer has a personal stake in the content, allowing them to interpret the information in a different way. When analyzing tone, consider what the writer is trying to achieve in the text and how they create the tone using style. Style Style can include any number of technical writing choices. A few examples of style choices include: - Sentence Construction: When presenting facts, does the writer use shorter sentences to create a quicker sense of the supporting evidence, or do they use longer sentences to elaborate and explain the information? - Technical Language: Does the writer use jargon to demonstrate their expertise in the subject, or do they use ordinary language to help the reader understand things in simple terms? - Formal Language: Does the writer refrain from using contractions such as won’t or can’t to create a more formal tone, or do they use a colloquial, conversational style to connect to the reader? - Formatting: Does the writer use a series of shorter paragraphs to help the reader follow a line of argument, or do they use longer paragraphs to examine an issue in great detail and demonstrate their knowledge of the topic?
On the test, examine the writer’s style and how their writing choices affect the way the text comes across. Mood Mood refers to the feelings and atmosphere that the writer’s words create for the reader. Like tone, many nonfiction texts can have a neutral mood. To return to the previous example, if the writer would choose to include information about a person they know being killed in a car accident, the text would suddenly carry an emotional component that is absent in the previous example. Depending on how they present the information, the writer can create a sad, angry, or even hopeful mood. When analyzing the mood, consider what the writer wants to accomplish and whether the best choice was made to achieve that end. Point of View Point of view is an important writing device to consider. In fiction writing, point of view refers to who tells the story or from whose perspective readers are observing as they read. In nonfiction writing, the point of view refers to whether the author refers to himself/herself, his/her readers, or chooses not to refer to either. Whether fiction or nonfiction, the author will carefully consider the impact the perspective will have on the purpose and main point of the writing. - First-person point of view: The story is told from the writer’s perspective. In fiction, this would mean that the main character is also the narrator. First-person point of view is easily recognized by the use of personal pronouns such as I, me, we, us, our, my, and myself. - Third-person point of view: In a more formal essay, this would be an appropriate perspective because the focus should be on the subject matter, not the writer or the reader.
Third-person point of view is recognized using the pronouns he, she, they, and it. In fiction writing, third person point of view has a few variations.
- Third-person limited point of view refers to a story told by a narrator who has access to the thoughts and feelings of just one character. - In third-person omniscient point of view, the narrator has access to the thoughts and feelings of all the characters. - In third-person objective point of view, the narrator is like a fly on the wall and can see and hear what the characters do and say but does not have access to their thoughts and feelings. - Second-person point of view: This point of view isn’t commonly used in fiction or nonfiction writing because it directly addresses the reader using the pronouns you, your, and yourself. Second-person perspective is more appropriate in direct communication, such as business letters or emails.
Understanding the Effect of Word Choice An author’s choice of words—also referred to as diction—helps to convey his or her meaning in a particular way. Through diction, an author can convey a particular tone—e.g., a humorous tone, a serious tone—in order to support the thesis in a meaningful way to the reader. Connotation and Denotation Connotation is when an author chooses words or phrases that invoke ideas or feelings other than their literal meaning. An example of the use of connotation is the word cheap, which suggests something is poor in value or negatively describes a person as reluctant to spend money. When something or someone is described this way, the reader is more inclined to have a particular image or feeling about it or him/her. Thus, connotation can be a very effective language tool in creating emotion and swaying opinion. However, connotations are sometimes hard to pin down because varying emotions can be associated with a word. Generally, though, connotative meanings tend to be fairly consistent within a specific cultural group. Denotation refers to words or phrases that mean exactly what they say. It is helpful when a writer wants to present hard facts or vocabulary terms with which readers may be unfamiliar. Some examples of denotation are the words inexpensive and frugal. Inexpensive refers to the cost of something, not its value, and frugal indicates that a person is conscientiously watching his or her spending. These terms do not elicit the same emotions that cheap does. Authors sometimes choose to use both, but what they choose and when they use it is what critical readers need to differentiate. One method isn’t inherently better than the other; however, one may create a better effect, depending upon an author’s intent. If, for example, an author’s purpose is to inform, to instruct, and to familiarize readers with a difficult subject, his or her use of connotation may be helpful. However, it may also undermine credibility and confuse readers. An author who wants to create a credible, scholarly effect in his or her text would most likely use denotation, which emphasizes literal, factual meaning and examples. Technical Language Test takers and critical readers alike should be very aware of technical language used within informational text. Technical language refers to terminology that is specific to a particular industry and is best understood by those specializing in that industry. This language is fairly easy to differentiate, since it will most likely be unfamiliar to readers. It’s critical to be able to define technical language either by the author’s written definition, through the use of an included glossary—if offered—or through context clues that help readers clarify word meaning. Figurative Language Literary texts employ rhetorical devices. Figurative language like simile and metaphor is a type of rhetorical device commonly found in literature. In addition to rhetorical devices that play on the meanings of words, there are also rhetorical devices that use the sounds of words. These devices are most often found in poetry but may also be found in other types of literature and in non-fiction writing like speech texts. Alliteration and assonance are both varieties of sound repetition. Other types of sound repetition include: anaphora, repetition that occurs at the beginning of the sentences; epiphora, repetition occurring at the end of phrases; antimetabole, repetition of words in reverse order; and antiphrasis, a form of denial of an assertion in a text.
Alliteration refers to the repetition of the first sound of each word. Recall Robert Burns’ opening line: My love is like a red, red rose
This line includes two instances of alliteration: “love” and “like” (repeated L sound), as well as “red” and “rose” (repeated R sound).
Next, assonance refers to the repetition of vowel sounds, and can occur anywhere within a word (not just the opening sound).
Here is the opening of a poem by John Keats: When I have fears that I may cease to be Before my pen has glean’d my teeming brain
Assonance can be found in the words “fears,” “cease,” “be,” “glean’d,” and “teeming,” all of which stress the long E sound. Both alliteration and assonance create a harmony that unifies the writer’s language. Another sound device is onomatopoeia, or words whose spelling mimics the sound they describe. Words like “crash,” “bang,” and “sizzle” are all examples of onomatopoeia. Use of onomatopoetic language adds auditory imagery to the text.
Readers are probably most familiar with the technique of pun. A pun is a play on words, taking advantage of two words that have the same or similar pronunciation.
Puns can be found throughout Shakespeare’s plays, for instance: Now is the winter of our discontent Made glorious summer by this son of York
These lines from Richard III contain a play on words. Richard III refers to his brother, the newly crowned King Edward IV, as the “son of York,” referencing their family heritage from the house of York. However, while drawing a comparison between the political climate and the weather (times of political trouble were the “winter,” but now the new king brings “glorious summer”), Richard’s use of the word “son” also implies another word with the same pronunciation, “sun”—so Edward IV is also like the sun, bringing light, warmth, and hope to England. Puns are a clever way for writers to suggest two meanings at once. Some examples of figurative language are included in the following graphic.
Figurative language can be used to give additional insight into the theme or message of a text by moving beyond the usual and literal meaning of words and phrases. It can also be used to appeal to the senses of readers and create a more in-depth story. Facts and Opinions As mentioned previously, authors write with a purpose. They adjust their writing for an intended audience. It is the readers’ responsibility to comprehend the writing style or purpose of the author. When readers understand a writer’s purpose, they can then form their own thoughts about the text(s), regardless of whether their thoughts are the same as or different from the author’s. Facts Versus Opinions Readers need to be aware of the writer’s purpose to help discern facts and opinions within texts. A fact is a piece of information that is true. It can either prove or disprove claims or arguments presented in texts. Facts cannot be changed or altered. For example, the statement: Abraham Lincoln was assassinated on April 15, 1865, is a fact. The date and related events cannot be altered. Authors not only present facts in their writing to support or disprove their claim(s), but they may also express their opinions. Authors may use facts to support their own opinions, especially in a persuasive text; however, that does not make their opinions facts. An opinion is a belief or view formed about something that is not necessarily based on the truth. Opinions often express authors’ personal feelings about a subject and use words like believe, think, or feel. For example, the statement: Abraham Lincoln was the best president who has ever lived, expresses the writer’s opinion. Not all writers or readers agree or disagree with the statement. Therefore, the statement can be altered or adjusted to express opposing or supporting beliefs, such as “Abraham Lincoln was the worst president who has ever lived” or “I also think Abraham Lincoln was a great president.” When authors include facts and opinions in their writing, readers may be less influenced by the text(s). Readers need to be conscious of the distinction between facts and opinions while going through texts. Not only should the intended audience be vigilant in following authors’ thoughts versus valid information, readers need to check the source of the facts presented. Facts should have reliable sources derived from credible outlets like almanacs, encyclopedias, medical journals, and so on. Rhetorical Strategies Rhetoric refers to an author’s use of particular strategies, appeals, and devices to persuade an intended audience. The more effective the use of rhetoric, the more likely the audience will be persuaded. Determining an Author’s Point of View A rhetorical strategy—also referred to as a rhetorical mode—is the structural way an author chooses to present his/her argument. Though the terms noted below are similar to the organizational structures noted earlier, these strategies do not imply that the entire text follows the approach. For example, a cause and effect organizational structure is solely that, nothing more. A persuasive text may use cause and effect as a strategy to convey a singular point. Thus, an argument may include several of the strategies as the author strives to convince his or her audience to take action or accept a different point of view. It’s important that readers are able to identify an author’s thesis and position on the topic in order to be able to identify the careful construction through which the author speaks to the reader.
The following are some of the more common rhetorical strategies: - Cause and effect—establishing a logical correlation or causation between two ideas - Classification/division—grouping similar items together or dividing something into parts - Comparison/contrast—the distinguishing of similarities/differences to expand on an idea - Definition—clarifies abstract ideas, unfamiliar concepts, or distinguishes one idea from another - Description—use of vivid imagery, active verbs, and clear adjectives to explain ideas - Exemplification—the use of examples to explain an idea - Narration—anecdotes or personal experience to present or expand on a concept - Problem/Solution—presentation of a problem or problems, followed by proposed solution(s) Rhetorical Strategies and Devices A rhetorical device is the phrasing and presentation of an idea that reinforces and emphasizes a point in an argument. A rhetorical device is often quite memorable. One of the more famous uses of a rhetorical device is in John F. Kennedy’s 1961 inaugural address: “Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.” The contrast of ideas presented in the phrasing is an example of the rhetorical device of antimetabole. Some other common examples are provided below, but test takers should be aware that this is not a complete list.
Rhetorical Appeals In an argument or persuasive text, an author will strive to sway readers to an opinion or conclusion. To be effective, an author must consider his or her intended audience. Although an author may write text for a general audience, he or she will use methods of appeal or persuasion to convince that audience. Aristotle asserted that there were three methods or modes by which a person could be persuaded. These are referred to as rhetorical appeals.
The three main types of rhetorical appeals are shown in the following graphic: Ethos, also referred to as an ethical appeal, is an appeal to the audience’s perception of the writer as credible (or not), based on their examination of their ethics and who the writer is, his/her experience or incorporation of relevant information, or his/her argument. For example, authors may present testimonials to bolster their arguments. The reader who critically examines the veracity of the testimonials and the credibility of those giving the testimony will be able to determine if the author’s use of testimony is valid to his or her argument. In turn, this will help the reader determine if the author’s thesis is valid. An author’s careful and appropriate use of technical language can create an overall knowledgeable effect and, in turn, act as a convincing vehicle when it comes to credibility. Overuse of technical language, however, may create confusion in readers and obscure an author’s overall intent. Pathos, also referred to as a pathetic or emotional appeal, is an appeal to the audience’s sense of identity, self-interest, or emotions. A critical reader will notice when the author is appealing to pathos through anecdotes and descriptions that elicit an emotion such as anger or pity. Readers should also beware of factual information that uses generalization to appeal to the emotions. While it’s tempting to believe an author is the source of truth in his or her text, an author who presents factual information as universally true, consistent throughout time, and common to all groups is using generalization. Authors who exclusively use generalizations without specific facts and credible sourcing are attempting to sway readers solely through emotion. Logos, also referred to as a logical appeal, is an appeal to the audience’s ability to see and understand the logic in a claim offered by the writer. A critical reader has to be able to evaluate an author’s arguments for validity of reasoning and for sufficiency when it comes to argument.
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