Bias Not only can authors state facts or opinions in their writing, they sometimes intentionally or unintentionally show bias or portray a stereotype. A bias is when someone demonstrates a prejudice in favor of or against something or someone in an unfair manner. When an author is biased in his or her writing, readers should be skeptical despite the fact that the author’s bias may be correct. For example, two athletes competed for the same position. One athlete is related to the coach and is a mediocre athlete, while the other player excels and deserves the position. The coach chose the less talented player who is related to him for the position. This is a biased decision because it favors someone in an unfair way. Similar to a bias, a stereotype shows favoritism or opposition but toward a specific group or place. Stereotypes create an oversimplified or overgeneralized idea about a certain group, person, or place.
For example, Women are horrible drivers. This statement basically labels all women as horrible drivers. While there may be some terrible female drivers, the stereotype implies that all women are bad drivers when, in fact, not all women are. While many readers are aware of several vile ethnic, religious, and cultural stereotypes, audiences should be cautious of authors’ flawed assumptions because they can be less obvious than the despicable examples that are unfortunately pervasive in society. Fallacies A fallacy is a mistaken belief or faulty reasoning, otherwise known as a logical fallacy. It is important for readers to recognize logical fallacies because they discredit the author’s message. Readers should continuously self-question as they go through a text to identify logical fallacies. Readers cannot simply complacently take information at face value.
There are six common types of logical fallacies: - False analogy - Circular reasoning - False dichotomy - Overgeneralization - Slippery slope - Hasty generalization Each of the six logical fallacies are reviewed individually. False Analogy A false analogy is when the author assumes two objects or events are alike in all aspects despite the fact that they may be vastly different. Authors intend on making unfamiliar objects relatable to convince readers of something. For example, the letters A and E are both vowels; therefore, A = E. Readers cannot assume that because A and E are both vowels that they perform the same function in words or independently. If authors tell readers, A = E, then that is a false analogy. While this is a simple example, other false analogies may be less obvious. Circular Reasoning Circular reasoning is when the reasoning is decided based upon the outcome or conclusion and then vice versa. Basically, those who use circular reasoning start out with the argument and then use false logic to try to prove it, and then, in turn, the reasoning supports the conclusion in one big circular pattern. For example, consider the two thoughts, “I don’t have time to get organized” and “My disorganization is costing me time.” Which is the argument? What is the conclusion? If there is not time to get organized, will more time be spent later trying to find whatever is needed? In turn, if so much time is spent looking for things, there is not time to get organized. The cycle keeps going in an endless series. One problem affects the other; therefore, there is a circular pattern of reasoning. False Dichotomy A false dichotomy, also known as a false dilemma, is when the author tries to make readers believe that there are only two options to choose from when, in fact, there are more. The author creates a false sense of the situation because he or she wants the readers to believe that his or her claim is the most logical choice. If the author does not present the readers with options, then the author is purposefully limiting what readers may believe. In turn, the author hopes that readers will believe that his or her point of view is the most sensible choice. For example, in the statement: you either love running, or you are lazy, the fallacy lies in the options of loving to run or being lazy. Even though both statements do not necessarily have to be true, the author tries to make one option seem more appealing than the other. Overgeneralization An overgeneralization is a logical fallacy that occurs when authors write something so extreme that it cannot be proved or disproved. Words like all, never, most, and few are commonly used when an overgeneralization is being made. For example, All kids are crazy when they eat sugar; therefore, my son will not have a cupcake at the birthday party. Not all kids are crazy when they eat sugar, but the extreme statement can influence the readers’ points of view on the subject. Readers need to be wary of overgeneralizations in texts because authors may try to sneak them in to sway the readers’ opinions. Slippery Slope A slippery slope is when an author implies that something will inevitably happen as a result of another action. A slippery slope may or may not be true, even though the order of events or gradations may seem logical.
For example, in the children’s book If You Give a Mouse a Cookie, the author goes off on tangents such as “If you give a mouse a cookie, he will ask for some milk. When you give him the milk, he’ll probably ask you for a straw.” The mouse in the story follows a series of logical events as a result of a previous action. The slippery slope continues on and on throughout the story. Even though the mouse made logical decisions, it very well could have made a different choice, changing the direction of the story. Hasty Generalization A hasty generalization is when the reader comes to a conclusion without reviewing or analyzing all the evidence. It is never a good idea to make a decision without all the information, which is why hasty generalizations are considered fallacies. For example, if two friends go to a hairdresser and give the hairdresser a positive recommendation, that does not necessarily mean that a new client will have the same experience. Two referrals is not quite enough information to form an educated and well-formed conclusion. Overall, readers should carefully review and analyze authors’ arguments to identify logical fallacies and come to sensible conclusions.
Support in an Argument Evaluating an Author’s Purpose A reader must be able to evaluate the argument or point the author is trying to make and determine if it is adequately supported. The first step is to determine the main idea. The main idea is what the author wants to say about a specific topic. The next step is to locate the supporting details. An author uses supporting details to illustrate the main idea. These are the details that provide evidence or examples to help make a point. Supporting details often appear in the form of quotations, paraphrasing, or analysis. Test takers should then examine the text to make sure the author connects details and analysis to the main point. These steps are crucial to understanding the text and evaluating how well the author presents his or her argument and evidence.
The following graphic demonstrates the connection between the main idea and the supporting details. Evaluating Evidence It is important to evaluate the author’s supporting details to be sure that they are credible, provide evidence of the author’s point, and directly support the main idea. Critical readers examine the facts used to support an author’s argument and check those facts against other sources to be sure the facts are correct. They also check the validity of the sources used to be sure those sources are credible, academic, and/or peer- reviewed. A strong argument uses valid, measurable facts to support ideas.
Identifying False Statements A reader must also be able to identify any logical fallacies—logically-flawed statements—that an author may make as those fallacies impact the validity and veracity of the author’s claims.
Some of the more common fallacies are shown in the following chart.
Readers who are aware of the types of fallacious reasoning are able to weigh the credibility of the author’s statements in terms of effective argument. Rhetorical text that contains a myriad of fallacious statements should be considered ineffectual and suspect. Counterarguments and Evaluating Arguments If an author presents a differing opinion or a counterargument in order to refute it, the reader should consider how and why this information is being presented. It is meant to strengthen the original argument and shouldn’t be confused with the author’s intended conclusion, but it should also be considered in the reader’s final evaluation. Authors can also use bias if they ignore the opposing viewpoint or present their side in an unbalanced way. A strong argument considers the opposition and finds a way to refute it. Critical readers should look for an unfair or one-sided presentation of the argument and be skeptical, as a bias may be present. Even if this bias is unintentional, if it exists in the writing, the reader should be wary of the validity of the argument. Readers should also look for the use of stereotypes, which refer to specific groups. Stereotypes are often negative connotations about a person or place, and should always be avoided. When a critical reader finds stereotypes in a piece of writing, they should be critical of the argument, and consider the validity of anything the author presents. Stereotypes reveal a flaw in the writer’s thinking and may suggest a lack of knowledge or understanding about the subject. In general, readers should always heed attention to whether an author’s ideas or stated facts are relevant to the argument or counterargument posed in the reading. Those that are irrelevant can cloud the argument or weaken it. In much the same way, critical readers are able to identify whether statements in a reading strengthen or weaken the author’s argument.
Authors want readers to accept their assertions and arguments as true but critical readers evaluate the strength of the argument instead of simply taking it at face value and accepting it as the truth or only point of view.
All arguments need two parts: the claim and the supporting evidence or rationale.
The claim is the argument. It asserts an opinion, idea, point of view, or conclusion. The supporting evidence is the rationale, assumptions, beliefs, as well as the factual evidence in support of the stated claim. The supporting evidence is what gives readers the information necessary to accept or reject the stated claim. Critical readers should assess the argument in its entirety by evaluating the claims and conclusions themselves, the process of reasoning, and the accuracy of the evidence. For example, arguments are weaker and should be skeptically considered when the supporting evidence is highly opinionated, biased, or derived from sources that are not credible. Authors should cite where statistics and other stated facts were found. Lastly, the support for a claim should be pertinent to it and consistent with the other statements and evidence. The Author’s Conclusion and Thesis An informational text is specifically designed to relate factual information, and although it is open to a reader’s interpretation and application of the facts, the structure of the presentation is carefully designed to lead the reader to a particular conclusion or central idea. When reading an informational text, it is important that readers are able to understand its organizational structure as the structure often directly relates to an author’s intent to inform and/or persuade the reader. The first step in identifying the text’s structure is to determine the thesis or main idea. The thesis statement and organization of a work are closely intertwined. A thesis statement indicates the writer’s purpose and may include the scope and direction of the text. It may be presented at the beginning of a text or at the end, and it may be explicit or implicit. Once a reader has a grasp of the thesis or main idea of the text, he or she can better determine its organizational structure. Test takers are advised to read informational text passages more than once in order to comprehend the material fully. It is also helpful to examine any text features present in the text including the table of contents, index, glossary, headings, footnotes, and visuals. The analysis of these features and the information presented within them, can offer additional clues about the central idea and structure of a text.
The following questions should be asked when considering structure: - How does the author assemble the parts to make an effective whole argument? - Is the passage linear in nature and if so, what is the timeline or thread of logic? - What is the presented order of events, facts, or arguments? - Is the order used effective in contributing to the author’s thesis? - How can the passage be divided into sections? - How can the sections of the passage be related to each other and to the main idea or thesis? - What key terms are used to indicate the organization?
Once a reader has determined an author’s thesis or main idea, he or she will need to understand how textual evidence supports interpretation of that thesis or main idea. Test takers will be asked direct questions regarding an author’s main idea and may be asked to identify evidence that would support those ideas. This will require test takers to comprehend literal and figurative meanings within the text passage, be able to draw inferences from provided information, and be able to separate important evidence from minor supporting detail. It’s often helpful to skim test questions and answer options prior to critically reading informational text; however, test takers should avoid the temptation to solely look for the correct answers. Just trying to find the “right answer” may cause test takers to miss important supporting textual evidence. Making mental note of test questions is only helpful as a guide when reading. After identifying an author’s thesis or main idea, a test taker should look at the supporting details that the author provides to back up his or her assertions, identifying those additional pieces of information that help expand the thesis. From there, test takers should examine that additional information and related details for credibility, the author’s use of outside sources, and be able to point to direct evidence that supports the author’s claims. It’s also imperative that test takers be able to identify what is strong support and what is merely additional information that is nice to know, but not necessary. Being able to make this differentiation will help test takers effectively answer questions regarding an author’s use of supporting evidence within informational text. In a conclusion, the writer restates their main idea a final time, often after summarizing the smaller pieces of that idea. If the introduction uses a quote or anecdote to grab the reader’s attention, the conclusion often makes reference to it again. Whatever way the writer chooses to arrange the conclusion, the final restatement of the main idea should be clear and simple for the reader to interpret. Finally, conclusions shouldn’t introduce any new information.
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