Basics of Grammar and Sentence Structure

We will cover:
- The Eight Parts of Speech
-  Comma Control
-  Clauses
-  Sentence Types
-  Pronouns
-  Gerunds
-  Subject/Verb Recognition

The Eight Parts of Speech: Each part of speech explains not what the word is, but how the word is used. In fact, a word can be a noun in one sentence and a verb or adjective in the next.

Nouns
Verbs
Pronouns
Adverbs
Adjective
Conjunctions
Prepositions
Interjections

1. Noun
A noun is the name of a person place or thing, or idea
Common Noun: refers to any place, person, thing, or idea.

Examples:  girl, house, water, town, religion, despair

Proper Noun: refers to any particular place, person, object, or idea

Examples:

Bob, Stockton, Eiffel Tower, Wednesday
 (Proper nouns must be capitalized)

2. Pronoun
A pronoun takes the place of a noun.
English pronouns have three specific cases—
 the nominative case is used for the subject of the sentence or clause
 the possessive case shows who owns something
 the objective case receives the action of the verb or follows a preposition.

Example: As soon as she returned from work, Maria called her mother.
 

3. Adjective
Tells: Which One? What Kind? Or How Many?

Adjective modifiers are words that describe nouns and specify size, color, number, and the like.

Example: A small light showed in an upper window of the old factory.

4. Preposition
Prepositions show how a noun or a pronoun is related to another word in a sentence.

Example: The dog came bounding into the room.

In this example the preposition “into” clarifies the relationship between the noun dog and the noun room by indicating that the dog will be moving into the room.
He parked behind the truck.

In this example the proposition “behind” connects the pronoun he and the noun truck.
Words that we use as prepositions can also be used as adverbs.

Example: The dog jumped up the tree.

5. Verb
A verb shows action or state of being and the time of that action or state.

Example: He waited in the car. (past)
I need your report now. (present)
You will enjoy your trip to Europe. (future)

6. Adverb
Tells: When? Where? Or To What Extent?

Adverb modifiers are words that describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They specify in what manner, when, where, and how much.

Example: The child screamed loudly as the doctor prepared an injection.

7. Conjunction
Conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses.

There are two types—
Coordinating Conjunctions connect sentence elements of the same value, single words, phrases, or clauses. These conjunctions are known as the “FANBOYS”: and, but, for, or, nor, yet, and so.

Subordinating Conjunctions join two clauses, the main one and the dependent (or subordinate) one. Some conjunctions used with dependent clauses are: although, because, since, while, and others that place a condition in the sentence.

8. Interjection
Excitable Phrase or Word Interjections are also known as exclamations and are often signaled by the use of the exclamation mark (!).
Example: Ah! There you are.

7 Common Comma Rules
1. Separate main clauses linked by coordinating conjunctions
The cow was eating grass in the neighbor’s yard, yet no one cared.

2. Set off most introductory elements
Early in the morning, the farmer milks the cows.

3. Set off nonessential elements
 The farmer, in the green jeans, is the winner of the milking contest.

4. Separate items in a series
Children love to eat milk and cookies, peanut butter and jelly, as well as candy.

5. Separate coordinate adjectives
 Those small, round globes are called marbles. (If the adjectives can be reversed without changing meaning AND the word and can be inserted between the adjectives, then a comma is required.)
6. Separate signal phrases from quotations
 According to the text, “she had died of heart disease--of the joy that kills.” (Do not use a comma when a signal phrase follows a quotation ending in an exclamation point or a question mark.)
7. Separate parts of dates, addresses, place names, and long numbers
 December 12, 2018
220 West Palm, Dalton, Florida 20387
 Davis, California is the home of the Mustangs 4,345,998

Comma Abuse: Commas in the wrong places can break a sentence into illogical segments or confuse readers with unnecessary and unexpected pauses.

1. Don't use a comma to separate the subject from the verb.
 An eighteen-year old in California, is now considered an adult. (incorrect)
 An eighteen-year old in California is now considered an adult. (correct)

2. Don't put a comma between the two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.
 I turned the corner, and ran smack into a patrol car. (incorrect)
 I turned the corner and ran smack into a patrol car. (correct)

3. Don't put a comma between the two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses in a compound subject or compound object.
 The music teacher from your high school, and the football coach from mine are married. (incorrect: compound subject)
 The music teacher from your high school and the football coach from mine are married. (correct: compound subject)
 Jeff told me that the job was still available, and that the manager wanted to interview me. (incorrect: compound object)
 Jeff told me that the job was still available and that the manager wanted to interview me. (correct: compound object)

4. Don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
 She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken.

(incorrect)

She was late for class because her alarm clock was broken. (correct)
The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating. (incorrect)
The cat scratched at the door while I was eating. (correct)
She was still quite upset although she had won the Oscar. (incorrect: extreme contrast)
She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (correct: extreme contrast)

5. Always put a comma before the word “which” when it is part of an adjective clause.
 She purchased new books for the library, which did not have funds of its own. (correct)
 She purchased new books for the library which did not have funds of its own. (incorrect)

- Skills: Clauses

Independent Clause
 An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. An independent clause is a sentence.
 An independent clause is represented by the letters:
Example: Jim studied in the lab for his chemistry quiz. (IC)

Dependent Clause
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. Often a dependent clause is marked by a dependent marker word—a subordinating conjunction.
A dependent clause is represented by the letters:DC

Example: When Jim studied in the lab for his chemistry quiz… (What happened when he studied? The thought is incomplete.)

Simple Sentence
Clauses can be combined in various ways. But, if a sentence contains only an independent clause—and no other clauses— it will be a simple sentence. A simple sentence is an independent clause.

A simple sentence is represented by the letters IC

Example: The cow gives milk.
- Skill: Sentence Types

Compound Sentence

A compound sentence is one containing two or more independent clauses. These clauses will be joined by a semicolon (;) or by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, or, but, for, nor, yet, so).
IC, cc IC. = Compound Sentence

Example: The cow gives milk, and the farmer puts the milk into a pail.

Complex Sentence
A complex sentence is a sentence with one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
DC, IC. = Complex Sentence
IC DC. = Complex Sentence

Example:  Before she goes out to pasture, the cow gives milk.
The cow gives milk before she goes out to pasture.

Compound-Complex Sentence

A compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
IC, cc IC DC. = Compound-Complex Sentence
DC, IC, cc IC. = Compound-Complex Sentence

Example: The cow gives milk, and the farmer puts the milk into the pail after he takes a drink.
Before she goes out to pasture, the cow gives milk, and the farmer puts the milk into a pail.

Fragment
 A fragment is an incomplete thought. If you write a clause without a subject or verb or a complete thought it will be a fragment. If you write a phrase without a complete thought, it will be a fragment.

Example:

Before the cow gives milk…
The cow in the pasture…

Pronouns
 Pronouns take the place of nouns.
 Antecedents are the nouns that pronouns refer to.
 Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in gender and number.

Examples:

Aunt Jane took her books to the library. (gender)
My aunt and uncle spend the summer at their beach house. (number)

 
Pronouns come in 3 cases

Subject—Used when the pronoun is the subject or subject complement.

I , We, You, He/She/It, they, who/whoever

Object—Used when the pronoun works as an object.

Me, Us, You, Him/Her/It, Them, Whom/Whomever

Possessive—Show possession or ownership.

My/Mine, Whose, Their/Theirs, Your/Yours, Our/ours

Some more pronoun rules:

Subject
Use when it follows a linking verb like be, seem, or feel.

It was I who wrecked the car. (not me)
Use when the pronoun is part of a compound subject(does the action).

Last year, my sister and I went camping.

Object
Use when the pronoun is part of a compound object(receives the action).

There was never any tension between him and me.
Before or after an infinitive(to + verb)

Our instructor asked James and me to share our findings with the class.

Possessive
Use when the pronoun comes before a gerund.

Diana Ross is famous for her ice singing.
 

Generic Nouns
 refer to a type of person or thing.
Example: Antecedents/Pronouns

Every teacher should always arrive early to his or her class. (singular)
Teachers should always arrive early to their classes. (Plural)

Indefinite Pronouns
 These are singular(even if they seem to be plural).
 Includes words like anyone, each, either, everyone,
 neither, no one, and someone

Examples:

Everyone in the class did their best on the exam.(incorrect/plural pronoun)
Everyone in the class did his or her best on the exam. (correct/singular)

Collective Nouns
 Take a plural pronoun when they refer to individuals in the group
 Take a singular pronoun when they refer to the group as a whole.
 Include words like students, administration, or audience

Example:
The baseball team got its drive from their coach. (singular)
The baseball team shook hands with their opposition. (plural)

Gerunds
 A Gerund is a verb form ending in –ing
 Gerunds work as nouns in sentences even though they look like verbs.
 Gerunds are usually the subject of the sentence.

Example:
Many people like to go swimming when it is hot.
Hiking, skiing, and biking are all great outdoor activities.

Subject/Verb Recognition
 Subjects and verbs must agree in number(singular or plural).
 She and her friend is taking a trip. (Incorrect)
 She and her friend are taking a trip. (Correct)

If a subject has two or more nouns/pronouns connected by “or” they require a singular verb.

The subject refers to who or what is doing the action of a sentence.
The verb is the action or state of being that usually follows the subject.