Media literacy 101: Foundations of Propaganda Definition History of Propaganda

What This Is

Propaganda is the systematic dissemination of information, ideas, or messages to shape public opinion, influence behavior, or manipulate emotions. It often employs emotional appeals, simplification, and omission to bypass rational scrutiny. For example, the 2016 US presidential campaign of Donald Trump used emotional appeals and oversimplification to bypass fact-checking and rational analysis, exploiting confirmation bias and polarisation.

Key Theories & Models

• Propaganda Model (Herman & Chomsky): Five filters (ownership, funding, sourcing, flak, anti-communism/ideology) shape news into pro-establishment narratives – explains why some stories are systematically marginalised.
• Inoculation Theory (McGuire, Compton): Pre-exposing people to weakened versions of misinformation can build resistance – basis for pre-bunking games like “Bad News”.
• Agenda-Setting Theory (McCombs & Shaw): Media can influence what issues people think about and how they think about them – explains why some topics dominate the news.
• Framing Theory (Goffman): The way information is presented (e.g., positive or negative) influences how people think about an issue – used in advertising and political campaigns.
• Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner): People define themselves in relation to groups and will often conform to group norms – exploited in propaganda campaigns to create in-group vs out-group dynamics.
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger): People experience discomfort when their beliefs are challenged – used in propaganda to create cognitive dissonance and maintain existing beliefs.
• The Spiral of Silence (Noelle-Neumann): People are less likely to express opinions that contradict the majority – used in propaganda to create a sense of consensus.
• The Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo): People process information in two ways: centrally (rational) or peripherally (emotional) – used in propaganda to bypass rational scrutiny.

Step-by-Step Application

1. Identify the message: Recognise the information being presented and its intended audience.
2. Analyze the source: Consider the credibility and potential biases of the source.
3. Look for emotional appeals: Identify emotional language, imagery, or tone that may be used to bypass rational scrutiny.
4. Check for simplification: Be wary of oversimplification or omission of important information.
5. Consider the context: Evaluate the message in the context of the issue or event.
6. Evaluate the evidence: Assess the quality and quantity of evidence supporting the message.

Common Misconceptions

• Misconception: Propaganda is just lies.
• Correction: Propaganda often employs emotional appeals, simplification, and omission to bypass rational scrutiny, rather than outright lies.
• Misconception: Smart people can't be fooled.
• Correction: Anyone can be influenced by propaganda, regardless of intelligence or education.
• Misconception: The news is completely objective.
• Correction: All news sources have biases and agendas, and it's essential to evaluate sources critically.
• Misconception: Fact-checking always works.
• Correction: Fact-checking is not foolproof, and it's essential to consider the context and potential biases of fact-checkers.

Exam / Case Interview Tips

• Be prepared to distinguish between disinformation and misinformation: Disinformation is intentionally false information, while misinformation is inaccurate or misleading information.
• Understand the difference between framing and agenda-setting: Framing refers to the way information is presented, while agenda-setting refers to the issues that media coverage influences.
• Be aware of astroturfing vs grassroots campaigns: Astroturfing involves creating the appearance of grassroots support for a cause, while grassroots campaigns involve genuine community involvement.
• Use theory to frame your answers: Ground your responses in relevant theories and models to demonstrate a deep understanding of the topic.

Quick Practice Scenario

A news outlet repeatedly pairs the word 'crisis' with images of migrants. What framing technique is being used and what is its likely effect?

Answer: The news outlet is using framing to create a negative association with migrants, which may influence public opinion and policy decisions. This is likely to have a negative effect on migrants and immigration policies.

Last-Minute Cram Sheet

• Propaganda is the systematic dissemination of information to shape public opinion.
• The Propaganda Model (Herman & Chomsky) explains how five filters shape news into pro-establishment narratives.
• Inoculation Theory (McGuire, Compton) suggests pre-exposing people to weakened versions of misinformation can build resistance.
• Agenda-Setting Theory (McCombs & Shaw) explains how media can influence what issues people think about.
• Framing Theory (Goffman) shows how the way information is presented influences how people think about an issue.
• Propaganda is not just for totalitarian regimes – democracies use it too (Bernays called it 'engineering consent').
• The Spiral of Silence (Noelle-Neumann) explains how people are less likely to express opinions that contradict the majority.
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger) shows how people experience discomfort when their beliefs are challenged.
• The Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo) explains how people process information in two ways: centrally (rational) or peripherally (emotional).
• Edward Bernays was a pioneer of modern propaganda and coined the term 'engineering consent'.
• The tobacco industry has been accused of using propaganda to manufacture doubt about scientific consensus on smoking risks.
• Cambridge Analytica used propaganda and data analysis to influence the 2016 US presidential election.
• The Russian Internet Research Agency has been accused of using propaganda to influence US and European politics.