A Simple Guide To Writing Skills: Agreement and Sentence Structure

Subjects and Predicates

Subjects
The subject of a sentence names who or what the sentence is all about. The subject may be directly stated in a sentence, or the subject may be the implied you. The complete subject includes the simple subject and all of its modifiers. To find the complete subject, ask Who or What and insert the verb to complete the question. The answer is the complete subject. To find the simple subject, remove all of the modifiers (adjectives, prepositional phrases, etc.) in the complete subject. Being able to locate the subject of a sentence helps with many problems, such as those involving sentence fragments and subject-verb agreement.

Examples:
The small red car is the one that he wants for Christmas.
(The simple subject is the car, and the complete subject is the small red car.)

The young artist is coming over for dinner.
(The simple subject is the artist, and the complete subject is the young artist.)

In imperative sentences, the verb's subject is understood (e.g., [You] Run to the store), but not actually present in the sentence. Normally, the subject comes before the verb. However, the subject comes after the verb in sentences that begin with There are or There was.

Direct:
John knows the way to the park.
(Who knows the way to the park? Answer: John)

The cookies need ten more minutes.
(What needs ten minutes? Answer: The cookies)

By five o’clock, Bill will need to leave.
(Who needs to leave? Answer: Bill)

Remember: The subject can come after the verb.

There are five letters on the table for him.
(What is on the table? Answer: Five letters)

There were coffee and doughnuts in the house.
(What was in the house? Answer: Coffee and doughnuts)

Implied:
Go to the post office for me.
(Who is going to the post office? Answer: You are.)

Come and sit with me, please?
(Who needs to come and sit? Answer: You do.)

Predicates
In a sentence, you always have a predicate and a subject. The subject tells what the sentence is about, and the predicate explains or describes the subject.

Think about the sentence He sings. In this sentence, we have a subject (He) and a predicate (sings). This is all that is needed for a sentence to be complete. Would we like more information? Of course, we would like to know more. However, if this is all the information that you are given, you have a complete sentence.

Now, let’s look at another sentence:
John and Jane sing on Tuesday nights at the dance hall.

What is the subject of this sentence?

Answer: John and Jane.

What is the predicate of this sentence?

Answer: Everything else in the sentence (sing on Tuesday nights at the dance hall).

Subject-Verb Agreement
Verbs agree with their subjects in number. In other words, singular subjects need singular verbs. Plural subjects need plural verbs. Singular is for one person, place, or thing. Plural is for more than one person, place, or thing. Subjects and verbs must also agree in person: first, second, or third. The present tense ending -s is used on a verb if its subject is third person singular; otherwise, the verb takes no ending.

Number Agreement Examples:
Single Subject and Verb: Dan calls home.
(Dan is one person. So, the singular verb calls is needed.)

Plural Subject and Verb: Dan and Bob call home.
(More than one person needs the plural verb call.)

Person Agreement Examples:
First Person: I am walking.

Second Person: You are walking.

Third Person: He is walking.

Complications with Subject-Verb Agreement
Words Between Subject and Verb
Words that come between the simple subject and the verb may serve as an effective distraction, but they have no bearing on subject-verb agreement.

Examples:
The joy of my life returns home tonight.
(Singular Subject: joy Singular Verb: returns)

The phrase of my life does not influence the verb returns.

The question that still remains unanswered is “Who are you?”
(Singular Subject: question Singular Verb: is)

Don’t let the phrase “that still remains…” trouble you. The subject question goes with is.

Compound Subjects
A compound subject is formed when two or more nouns joined by and, or, or nor jointly act as the subject of the sentence.

Joined by And
When a compound subject is joined by and, it is treated as a plural subject and requires a plural verb.

Examples:
You and Jon are invited to come to my house.
(Plural Subject: You and Jon. Plural Verb: are)

The pencil and paper belong to me.
(Plural Subject: pencil and paper. Plural Verb: belong)

Joined by Or/Nor
For a compound subject joined by or or nor, the verb must agree in number with the part of the subject that is closest to the verb (italicized in the examples below).

Examples:
Today or tomorrow is the day.
(Subject: Today / tomorrow Verb: is)

Stan or Phil wants to read the book.
(Subject: Stan / Phil Verb: wants)

Neither the books nor the pen is on the desk.
(Subject: books / pen Verb: is)

Either the blanket or pillows arrive this afternoon.
(Subject: blanket / pillows Verb: arrive)

Indefinite Pronouns as Subject
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that does not refer to a specific noun. Indefinite pronouns may be only singular, be only plural, or change depending on how they are used.

Always Singular
Pronouns such as each, either, everybody, anybody, somebody, and nobody are always singular.

Examples:
Each of the runners has a different bib number.
(Singular Subject: Each Singular Verb: has)

Is either of you ready for the game?
(Singular Subject: either Singular Verb: Is)

Note: The words each and either can also be used as adjectives (e.g., each person is unique). When one of these adjectives modifies the subject of a sentence, it is always a singular subject.

Everybody grows a day older every day.
(Singular Subject: Everybody Singular Verb: grows)

Anybody is welcome to bring a tent.
(Singular Subject: Anybody Singular Verb: is)

Always Plural
Pronouns such as both, several, and many are always plural.

Examples:
Both of the siblings were too tired to argue.
(Plural Subject: Both Plural Verb: were)

Many have tried, but none have succeeded.
(Plural Subject: Many Plural Verb: have tried)

Depend on Context
Pronouns such as some, any, all, none, more, and most can be either singular or plural depending on what they are representing in the context of the sentence.

Examples:
All of my dog’s food was still there in his bowl
(Singular Subject: All Singular Verb: was)

By the end of the night, all of my guests were already excited about coming to my next party.
(Plural Subject: all Plural Verb: were)

Other Cases Involving Plural or Irregular Form
Some nouns are singular in meaning but plural in form: news, mathematics, physics, and economics.

The news is coming on now.

Mathematics is my favorite class.

Some nouns are plural in form and meaning, and have no singular equivalent: scissors and pants.

Do these pants come with a shirt?

The scissors are for my project.

Mathematical operations are irregular in their construction, but are normally considered to be singular in meaning.

One plus one is two.

Three times three is nine.

Note: Look to your dictionary for help when you aren’t sure whether a noun with a plural form has a singular or plural meaning.

Complements
A complement is a noun, pronoun, or adjective that is used to give more information about the subject or verb in the sentence.

Direct Objects
A direct object is a noun or pronoun that takes or receives the action of a verb. (Remember: a complete sentence does not need a direct object, so not all sentences will have them. A sentence needs only a subject and a verb.) When you are looking for a direct object, find the verb and ask who or what.

Examples:
I took the blanket. (Who or what did I take? The blanket)

Jane read books. (Who or what does Jane read? Books)

Indirect Objects
An indirect object is a word or group of words that show how an action had an influence on someone or something. If there is an indirect object in a sentence, then you always have a direct object in the sentence. When you are looking for the indirect object, find the verb and ask to/for whom or what.

Examples:
We taught the old dog a new trick.
(To/For Whom or What was taught? The old dog)

I gave them a math lesson.
(To/For Whom or What was given? Them)

Predicate Nominatives and Predicate Adjectives
As we looked at previously, verbs may be classified as either action verbs or linking verbs. A linking verb is so named because it links the subject to words in the predicate that describe or define the subject. These words are called predicate nominatives (if nouns or pronouns) or predicate adjectives (if adjectives).

Examples:
My father is a lawyer.
(Father is the subject. Lawyer is the predicate nominative.)

Your mother is patient.
(Mother is the subject. Patient is the predicate adjective.)

Pronoun Usage
The antecedent is the noun that has been replaced by a pronoun. A pronoun and its antecedent agree when they have the same number (singular or plural) and gender (male, female, or neuter).

Examples:
Singular agreement: John came into town, and he played for us.
(The word he replaces John.)

Plural agreement: John and Rick came into town, and they played for us.
(The word they replaces John and Rick.)

To determine which is the correct pronoun to use in a compound subject or object, try each pronoun alone in place of the compound in the sentence. Your knowledge of pronouns will tell you which one is correct.

Example:
Bob and (I, me) will be going.

Test: (1) I will be going or (2) Me will be going. The second choice cannot be correct because me cannot be used as the subject of a sentence. Instead, me is used as an object.

Answer: Bob and I will be going.

When a pronoun is used with a noun immediately following (as in “we boys”), try the sentence without the added noun.

Example:
(We/Us) boys played football last year.

Test: (1) We played football last year or (2) Us played football last year. Again, the second choice cannot be correct because us cannot be used as a subject of a sentence. Instead, us is used as an object.

Answer: We boys played football last year.

A pronoun should point clearly to the antecedent. Here is how a pronoun reference can be unhelpful if it is not directly stated or puzzling.

Unhelpful: Ron and Jim went to the store, and he bought soda.
(Who bought soda? Ron or Jim?)

Helpful: Jim went to the store, and he bought soda.
(The sentence is clear. Jim bought the soda.)

Some pronouns change their form by their placement in a sentence. A pronoun that is a subject in a sentence comes in the subjective case. Pronouns that serve as objects appear in the objective case. Finally, the pronouns that are used as possessives appear in the possessive case.

Examples:
Subjective case: He is coming to the show.
(The pronoun He is the subject of the sentence.)

Objective case: Josh drove him to the airport.
(The pronoun him is the object of the sentence.)

Possessive case: The flowers are mine.
(The pronoun mine shows ownership of the flowers.)

The word who is a subjective-case pronoun that can be used as a subject. The word whom is an objective-case pronoun that can be used as an object. The words who and whom are common in subordinate clauses or in questions.

Examples:
Subject: He knows who wants to come.
(Who is the subject of the verb wants.)

Object: He knows the man whom we want at the party.
(Whom is the object of we want.)

Clauses
A clause is a group of words that contains both a subject and a predicate (verb). There are two types of clauses: independent and dependent. An independent clause contains a complete thought, while a dependent (or subordinate) clause does not. A dependent clause includes a subject and a verb, and may also contain objects or complements, but it cannot stand as a complete thought without being joined to an independent clause. Dependent clauses function within sentences as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns.

Example:
Independent Clause: I am running

Dependent Clause: because I want to stay in shape

The clause I am running is an independent clause: it has a subject and a verb, and it gives a complete thought. The clause because I want to stay in shape is a dependent clause: it has a subject and a verb, but it does not express a complete thought. It adds detail to the independent clause to which it is attached.

Combined: I am running because I want to stay in shape.

Types of Dependent Clauses
Adjective Clauses
An adjective clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun or a pronoun. Adjective clauses begin with a relative pronoun (who, whose, whom, which, and that) or a relative adverb (where, when, and why).

Also, adjective clauses come after the noun that the clause needs to explain or rename. This is done to have a clear connection to the independent clause.

Examples:
I learned the reason why I won the award.

This is the place where I started my first job.

An adjective clause can be an essential or nonessential clause. An essential clause is very important to the sentence. Essential clauses explain or define a person or thing. Nonessential clauses give more information about a person or thing but are not necessary to define them. Nonessential clauses are set off with commas while essential clauses are not.

Examples:
Essential: A person who works hard at first can often rest later in life.

Nonessential: Neil Armstrong, who walked on the moon, is my hero.

Adverb Clauses
An adverb clause is a dependent clause that modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb. In sentences with multiple dependent clauses, adverb clauses are usually placed immediately before or after the independent clause. An adverb clause is introduced with words such as after, although, as, before, because, if, since, so, unless, when, where, and while.

Examples:
When you walked outside, I called the manager.

I will go with you unless you want to stay.

Noun Clauses
A noun clause is a dependent clause that can be used as a subject, object, or complement. Noun clauses begin with words such as how, that, what, whether, which, who, and why. These words can also come with an adjective clause. Unless the noun clause is being used as the subject of the sentence, it should come after the verb of the independent clause.

Examples:
The real mystery is how you avoided serious injury.

What you learn from each other depends on your honesty with others.

Subordination
When two related ideas are not of equal importance, the ideal way to combine them is to make the more important idea an independent clause and the less important idea a dependent or subordinate clause. This is called subordination.

Example:
Separate ideas: The team had a perfect regular season. The team lost the championship.

Subordinated: Despite having a perfect regular season, the team lost the championship.

Phrases
A phrase is a group of words that functions as a single part of speech, usually a noun, adjective, or adverb. A phrase is not a complete thought, but it adds detail or explanation to a sentence, or renames something within the sentence.

Prepositional Phrases
One of the most common types of phrases is the prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun that is the object of the preposition. Normally, the prepositional phrase functions as an adjective or an adverb within the sentence.

Examples:
The picnic is on the blanket.

I am sick with a fever today.

Among the many flowers, John found a four-leaf clover.

Verbal Phrases
A verbal is a word or phrase that is formed from a verb but does not function as a verb. Depending on its particular form, it may be used as a noun, adjective, or adverb. A verbal does not replace a verb in a sentence.

Examples:
Correct: Walk a mile daily.
(Walk is the verb of this sentence. The subject is the implied you.)

Incorrect: To walk a mile.
(To walk is a type of verbal. This is not a sentence since there is no functional verb)

There are three types of verbals: participles, gerunds, and infinitives. Each type of verbal has a corresponding phrase that consists of the verbal itself along with any complements or modifiers.

Participles
A participle is a type of verbal that always functions as an adjective. The present participle always ends with -ing. Past participles end with -d, -ed, -n, or -t.

Examples: Verb: dance | Present Participle: dancing | Past Participle: danced

Participial phrases most often come right before or right after the noun or pronoun that they modify.

Examples:
Shipwrecked on an island, the boys started to fish for food.

Having been seated for five hours, we got out of the car to stretch our legs.

Praised for their work, the group accepted the first-place trophy.

Gerunds
A gerund is a type of verbal that always functions as a noun. Like present participles, gerunds always end with -ing, but they can be easily distinguished from one another by the part of speech they represent (participles always function as adjectives). Since a gerund or gerund phrase always functions as a noun, it can be used as the subject of a sentence, the predicate nominative, or the object of a verb or preposition.

Examples:
We want to be known for teaching the poor. (Object of preposition)

Coaching this team is the best job of my life. (Subject)

We like practicing our songs in the basement. (Object of verb)

Infinitives
An infinitive is a type of verbal that can function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. An infinitive is made of the word to + the basic form of the verb. As with all other types of verbal phrases, an infinitive phrase includes the verbal itself and all of its complements or modifiers.

Examples:
To join the team is my goal in life. (Noun)

The animals have enough food to eat for the night. (Adjective)

People lift weights to exercise their muscles. (Adverb)

Appositive Phrases
An appositive is a word or phrase that is used to explain or rename nouns or pronouns. Noun phrases, gerund phrases, and infinitive phrases can all be used as appositives.

Examples:
Terriers, hunters at heart, have been dressed up to look like lap dogs.
(The noun phrase hunters at heart renames the noun terriers.)

His plan, to save and invest his money, was proven as a safe approach.
(The infinitive phrase explains what the plan is.)

Appositive phrases can be essential or nonessential. An appositive phrase is essential if the person, place, or thing being described or renamed is too general for its meaning to be understood without the appositive.

Examples:
Essential: Two of America’s Founding Fathers, George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, served as presidents.

Nonessential: George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, two Founding Fathers, served as presidents.

Absolute Phrases
An absolute phrase is a phrase that consists of a noun followed by a participle. An absolute phrase provides context to what is being described in the sentence, but it does not modify or explain any particular word; it is essentially independent.

Examples:
The alarm ringing, he pushed the snooze button.

The music paused, she continued to dance through the crowd.

Note: Absolute phrases can be confusing, so don’t be discouraged if you have a difficult time with them.

Parallelism
When multiple items or ideas are presented in a sentence in series, such as in a list, the items or ideas must be stated in grammatically equivalent ways. In other words, if one idea is stated in gerund form, the second cannot be stated in infinitive form. For example, to write, I enjoy reading and to study would be incorrect. An infinitive and a gerund are not equivalent. Instead, you should write I enjoy reading and studying. In lists of more than two, it can be harder to keep straight, but all items in a list must be parallel.

Example:
Incorrect: He stopped at the office, grocery store, and the pharmacy before heading home.

The first and third items in the list of places include the article the, so the second item needs it as well.

Correct: He stopped at the office, the grocery store, and the pharmacy before heading home.

Example:
Incorrect: While vacationing in Europe, she went biking, skiing, and climbed mountains.

The first and second items in the list are gerunds, so the third item must be as well.

Correct: While vacationing in Europe, she went biking, skiing, and mountain climbing.

Sentence Purpose
There are four types of sentences: declarative, imperative, interrogative, and exclamatory.

A declarative sentence states a fact and ends with a period.

Example: The football game starts at seven o’clock.

An imperative sentence tells someone to do something and generally ends with a period. (An urgent command might end with an exclamation point instead.)

Example: Don’t forget to buy your ticket.

An interrogative sentence asks a question and ends with a question mark.

Example: Are you going to the game on Friday?

An exclamatory sentence shows strong emotion and ends with an exclamation point.

Example: I can’t believe we won the game!

Sentence Structure
Sentences are classified by structure based on the type and number of clauses present. The four classifications of sentence structure are the following:
Simple: A simple sentence has one independent clause with no dependent clauses. A simple sentence may have compound elements (i.e., compound subject or verb).

Examples:
Judy watered the lawn. (single subject, single verb)

Judy and Alan watered the lawn. (compound subject, single verb)

Judy watered the lawn and pulled weeds. (single subject, compound verb)

Judy and Alan watered the lawn and pulled weeds. (compound subject, compound verb)

Compound: A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses with no dependent clauses. Usually, the independent clauses are joined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon.

Examples:
The time has come, and we are ready.

I woke up at dawn; the sun was just coming up.

Complex: A complex sentence has one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

Examples:
Although he had the flu, Harry went to work.

Marcia got married after she finished college.

Compound-Complex: A compound-complex sentence has at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

Examples:
John is my friend who went to India, and he brought back souvenirs.

You may not realize this, but we heard the music that you played last night.

Sentence Fragments
Usually when the term sentence fragment comes up, it is because you have to decide whether or not a group of words is a complete sentence, and if it’s not a complete sentence, you’re about to have to fix it. Recall that a group of words must contain at least one independent clause in order to be considered a sentence. If it doesn’t contain even one independent clause, it would be called a sentence fragment. (If it contains two or more independent clauses that are not joined correctly, it would be called a run-on sentence.)

The process to use for repairing a sentence fragment depends on what type of fragment it is. If the fragment is a dependent clause, it can sometimes be as simple as removing a subordinating word (e.g., when, because, if) from the beginning of the fragment. Alternatively, a dependent clause can be incorporated into a closely related neighboring sentence. If the fragment is missing some required part, like a subject or a verb, the fix might be as simple as adding it in.

Examples:
Fragment: Because he wanted to sail the Mediterranean.

Removed subordinating word: He wanted to sail the Mediterranean.

Combined with another sentence: Because he wanted to sail the Mediterranean, he booked a Greek island cruise.

Run-on Sentences
Run-on sentences consist of multiple independent clauses that have not been joined together properly. Run-on sentences can be corrected in several different ways:
Join clauses properly: This can be done with a comma and coordinating conjunction, with a semicolon, or with a colon or dash if the second clause is explaining something in the first.

Example:
Incorrect: I went on the trip, we visited lots of castles.

Corrected: I went on the trip, and we visited lots of castles.

Split into separate sentences: This correction is most effective when the independent clauses are very long or when they are not closely related.

Example:
Incorrect: The drive to New York takes ten hours, my uncle lives in Boston.

Corrected: The drive to New York takes ten hours. My uncle lives in Boston.

Make one clause dependent: This is the easiest way to make the sentence correct and more interesting at the same time. It’s often as simple as adding a subordinating word between the two clauses

Example:
Incorrect: I finally made it to the store and I bought some eggs.

Corrected: When I finally made it to the store, I bought some eggs.

Reduce to one clause with a compound verb: If both clauses have the same subject, remove the subject from the second clause, and you now have just one clause with a compound verb.

Example:
Incorrect: The drive to New York takes ten hours, it makes me very tired.

Corrected: The drive to New York takes ten hours and makes me very tired.

Note: While these are the simplest ways to correct a run-on sentence, often the best way is to completely reorganize the thoughts in the sentence and rewrite it.

Dangling and Misplaced Modifiers
Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier is a dependent clause or verbal phrase that does not have a clear logical connection to a word in the sentence.

Example:
Dangling: Reading each magazine article, the stories caught my attention.

The word stories cannot be modified by Reading each magazine article. People can read, but stories cannot read. Therefore, the subject of the sentence must be a person.

Corrected: Reading each magazine article, I was entertained by the stories.

Example:
Dangling: Ever since childhood, my grandparents have visited me for Christmas.

The speaker in this sentence can’t have been visited by her grandparents when they were children, since she wouldn’t have been born yet. Either the modifier should be clarified or the sentence should be rearranged to specify whose childhood is being referenced.

Clarified: Ever since I was a child, my grandparents have visited for Christmas.

Rearranged: I have enjoyed my grandparents visiting for Christmas, ever since childhood.

Misplaced Modifiers
Because modifiers are grammatically versatile, they can be put in many different places within the structure of a sentence. The danger of this versatility is that a modifier can accidentally be placed where it is modifying the wrong word or where it is not clear which word it is modifying.

Example:
Misplaced: She read the book to a crowd that was filled with beautiful pictures.

The book was filled with beautiful pictures, not the crowd.

Corrected: She read the book that was filled with beautiful pictures to a crowd.

Example:
Ambiguous: Derek saw a bus nearly hit a man on his way to work.

Was Derek on his way to work? Or was the other man?

Derek: On his way to work, Derek saw a bus nearly hit a man.

The other man: Derek saw a bus nearly hit a man who was on his way to work.

Split Infinitives
A split infinitive occurs when a modifying word comes between the word to and the verb that pairs with to.

Example: To clearly explain vs. To explain clearly | To softly sing vs. To sing softly

Though considered improper by some, split infinitives may provide better clarity and simplicity in some cases than the alternatives. As such, avoiding them should not be considered a universal rule.

Double Negatives
Standard English allows two negatives only when a positive meaning is intended. For example, The team was not displeased with their performance. Double negatives to emphasize negation are not used in standard English.

Negative modifiers (e.g., never, no, and not) should not be paired with other negative modifiers or negative words (e.g., none, nobody, nothing, or neither). The modifiers hardly, barely, and scarcely are considered negatives in standard English, so they should not be used with other negatives.