Common Errors in English Writing

Word Confusion

Which, That, and Who
Which is used for things only.

Example: John's dog, which is called Max, is large and fierce.

That is used for people or things.

Example: Is this the only book that Louis L'Amour wrote?

Example: Is Louis L'Amour the author that wrote Western novels?

Who is used for people only.

Example: Mozart was the composer who wrote those operas.

Homophones
Homophones are words that sound alike (or similar), but they have different spellings and definitions.

To, Too, and Two
To can be an adverb or a preposition for showing direction, purpose, and relationship. See your dictionary for the many other ways to use to in a sentence.

Examples: I went to the store. | I want to go with you.

Too is an adverb that means also, as well, very, or more than enough.

Examples: I can walk a mile too. | You have eaten too much.

Two is the second number in the series of numbers (e.g., one (1), two, (2), three (3)…)

Example: You have two minutes left.

There, Their, and They’re
There can be an adjective, adverb, or pronoun. Often, there is used to show a place or to start a sentence.

Examples: I went there yesterday. | There is something in his pocket.

Their is a pronoun that is used to show ownership.

Examples: He is their father. | This is their fourth apology this week.

They’re is a contraction of they are.
Example: Did you know that they’re in town?

Knew and New

Knew is the past tense of know.
Example: I knew the answer.

New is an adjective that means something is current, has not been used, or is modern.
Example: This is my new phone.

Then and Than

Then is an adverb that indicates sequence or order:
Example: I’m going to run to the library and then come home.

Than is special-purpose word used only for comparisons:
Example: Susie likes chips more than candy.

Its and It’s

Its is a pronoun that shows ownership.
Example: The guitar is in its case.

It’s is a contraction of it is.
Example: It’s an honor and a privilege to meet you.

Note: The h in honor is silent, so the sound of the vowel o must have the article an.

Your and You’re

Your is a pronoun that shows ownership.
Example: This is your moment to shine.

You’re is a contraction of you are.
Example: Yes, you’re correct.

Affect and Effect
There are two main reasons that affect and effect are so often confused: 1) both words can be used as either a noun or a verb, and 2) unlike most homophones, their usage and meanings are closely related to each other. Here is a quick rundown of the four usage options:

Affect (n): feeling, emotion, or mood that is displayed
Example: The patient had a flat affect. (i.e., his face showed little or no emotion)

Affect (v): to alter, to change, to influence
Example: The sunshine affects the plant’s growth.

Effect (n): a result, a consequence
Example: What effect will this weather have on our schedule?

Effect (v): to bring about, to cause to be
Example: These new rules will effect order in the office.

The noun form of affect is rarely used outside of technical medical descriptions, so if a noun form is needed on the test, you can safely select effect. The verb form of effect is not as rare as the noun form of affect, but it’s still not all that likely to show up on your test. If you need a verb and you can’t decide which to use based on the definitions, choosing affect is your best bet.

Homographs
Homographs are words that share the same spelling, but have different meanings and sometimes different pronunciations. To figure out which meaning is being used, you should be looking for context clues. The context clues give hints to the meaning of the word. For example, the word spot has many meanings. It can mean “a place” or “a stain or blot.” In the sentence “After my lunch, I saw a spot on my shirt,” the word spot means “a stain or blot.” The context clues of “After my lunch” and “on my shirt” guide you to this decision.

Bank
(noun): an establishment where money is held for savings or lending
(verb): to collect or pile up

Content
(noun): the topics that will be addressed within a book
(adjective): pleased or satisfied
(verb): to make someone pleased or satisfied

Fine
(noun): an amount of money that acts a penalty for an offense
(adjective): very small or thin
(adverb): in an acceptable way
(verb): to make someone pay money as a punishment

Incense
(noun): a material that is burned in religious settings and makes a pleasant aroma
(verb): to frustrate or anger

Lead
(noun): the first or highest position
(noun): a heavy metallic element
(verb): to direct a person or group of followers
(adjective): containing lead

Object
(noun): a lifeless item that can be held and observed
(verb): to disagree

Produce
(noun): fruits and vegetables
(verb): to make or create something

Refuse
(noun): garbage or debris that has been thrown away
(verb): to not allow

Subject
(noun): an area of study
(verb): to force or subdue

Tear
(noun): a fluid secreted by the eyes
(verb): to separate or pull apart

Modes of Writing
 

Essays
The basic format of an essay can be said to have three major parts: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. The body is further divided into the writer’s main points. Short and simple essays may have three main points, while essays covering broader ranges and going into more depth can have almost any number of main points, depending on length.

An essay’s introduction should answer three questions: (1) What is the subject of the essay? If a student writes an essay about a book, the answer would include the title and author of the book and any additional information needed—such as the subject or argument of the book. (2) How does the essay address the subject? To answer this, the writer identifies the essay’s organization by briefly summarizing main points and/or evidence supporting them. (3) What will the essay prove? This is the thesis statement, usually the opening paragraph’s last sentence, clearly stating the writer’s message.

The body elaborates on all the main points related to the thesis and supporting evidence, introducing one main point at a time. Each body paragraph should state the point, explain its meaning, support it with quotations or other evidence, and then explain how this point and the evidence are related to the thesis. The writer should then repeat this procedure in a new paragraph for each additional main point. In addition to relating each point to the thesis, clearly restating the thesis in at least one sentence of each paragraph is also advisable.

The conclusion reiterates the content of the introduction, including the thesis, to review them for the reader. The essay writer may also summarize the highlights of the argument or description contained in the body of the essay, following the same sequence originally used in the body. For example, a conclusion might look like: Point 1 + Point 2 + Point 3 = Thesis, or Point 1 → Point 2 → Point 3 → Thesis Proof. Good organization makes essays easier for writers to compose and provides a guide for readers to follow. Well-organized essays hold attention better and are more likely to get readers to accept their theses as valid.

Informative/Explanatory vs. Argumentative Writing
Informative/explanatory writing begins with the basis that something is true or factual, while argumentative writing strives to prove something that may or may not be true or factual. Whereas argumentative text is intended to persuade readers to agree with the author’s position, informative/explanatory text merely provides information and insight to readers. Informative/explanatory writing concentrates on informing readers about why or how something is as it is. This includes offering new information, explaining how a process works, and/or developing a concept for readers. In accomplishing these objectives, the writing may emphasize naming and differentiating various things within a category; providing definitions of things; providing details about the parts of something; explaining a particular function or behavior; and giving readers explanations for why a fact, object, event, or process exists or occurs.

Necessary Skills for Informative/Explanatory Writing
For students to write in informative/explanatory mode, they must be able to locate and select pertinent information from primary and secondary sources. They must also combine their own experiences and existing knowledge with this new information they find. They must not only select facts, details, and examples relevant to their topics but also learn to incorporate this information into their writing. Students need, at the same time, to develop their skills in various writing techniques, such as comparing and contrasting, making transitions between topics/points, and citing scenarios and anecdotes related to their topics. In teaching explanatory/informative writing, teachers must “read like writers” to use mentor texts to consider author craft and technique. They can find mentor texts in blogs, websites, newspapers, novels, plays, picture books, and many more. Teachers should know the grade-level writing standards for informative/explanatory writing to select classroom-specific, appropriate mentor texts.

Narrative Writing
Put simply, narrative writing tells a story. The most common examples of literary narratives are novels. Non-fictional biographies, autobiographies, memoirs, and histories also use narrative. Narratives should tell stories in such a way that the readers learn something or gain insight or understanding. Students can write more interesting narratives by relating events or experiences that were meaningful to them. Narratives should not begin with long descriptions or introductions but start with the actions or events. Students should ensure that there is a point to each story by describing what they learned from the experience they narrate. To write an effective description, students should include sensory details, asking themselves what they saw, heard, felt/touched, smelled, and tasted during the experiences they describe. In narrative writing, the details should be concrete rather than abstract. Using concrete details enables readers to imagine everything that the writer describes.

Sensory Details
Students need to use vivid descriptions when writing descriptive essays. Narratives should also include descriptions of characters, things, and events. Students should remember to describe not only the visual detail of what someone or something looks like but details from other senses as well. For example, they can contrast the feeling of a sea breeze to that of a mountain breeze, describe how they think something inedible would taste, and compare sounds they hear in the same location at different times of day and night. Readers have trouble visualizing images or imagining sensory impressions and feelings from abstract descriptions, so concrete descriptions make these more real.

Concrete vs. Abstract Descriptions in Narrative
Concrete language provides information that readers can grasp and may empathize with, while abstract language, which is more general, can leave readers feeling disconnected, empty, or even confused. “It was a lovely day” is abstract, but “The sun shone brightly, the sky was blue, the air felt warm, and a gentle breeze wafted across my skin” is concrete. “Ms. Couch was a good teacher” uses abstract language, giving only a general idea of the writer’s opinion. But “Ms. Couch is excellent at helping us take our ideas and turn them into good essays and stories” uses concrete language, giving more specific examples of what makes Ms. Couch a good teacher. “I like writing poems but not essays” gives readers a general idea that the student prefers one genre over another, but not why. But by saying, “I like writing short poems with rhythm and rhyme, but I hate writing five-page essays that go on and on about the same ideas,” readers understand that the student prefers the brevity, rhyme, and meter of short poetry over the length and redundancy of longer prose.

Journals and Diaries
A journal is a personal account of events, experiences, feelings, and thoughts. Many people write journals to confide their feelings and thoughts or to help them process experiences they have had. Since journals are private documents not meant for sharing with others, writers may not be concerned with grammar, spelling, or other mechanics. However, authors may write journals that they expect or hope to publish someday; in this case, they not only express their thoughts and feelings and process their experiences, but they additionally attend to their craft in writing them. Some authors compose journals to document particular time periods or series of related events, such as a cancer diagnosis and treatment, surviving the disease, and how these experiences have changed/affected them; experiences in recovering from addiction; journeys of spiritual exploration and discovery; trips to or time spent in another country; or anything else someone wants to personally document. Journaling can also be therapeutic; some people use them to work through feelings of grief over loss or to wrestle with big decisions.

The Diary of a Young Girl by Dutch Jew Anne Frank (1947) contains her life-affirming, nonfictional diary entries from 1942-1944 while her family hid in an attic from World War II’s genocidal Nazis. Go Ask Alice (1971) by Beatrice Sparks is a cautionary, fictional novel in the form of diary entries by an unhappy, rebellious teen who takes LSD, runs away from home and lives with hippies, and eventually returns home. Frank’s writing reveals an intelligent, sensitive, insightful girl, raised by intellectual European parents—a girl who believes in the goodness of human nature despite surrounding atrocities. The character Alice, influenced by early 1970s counterculture, becomes less optimistic. However, similarities can be found: Frank dies in a Nazi concentration camp while the fictitious Alice dies from a drug overdose; both are unable to escape their surroundings. Additionally, adolescent searches for personal identity are evident in both books.

Letters
Letters are messages written to other people. In addition to letters written between individuals, some writers compose letters to the editors of newspapers, magazines, and other publications, while some write “Open Letters” to be published and read by the general public. Open letters, while intended for everyone to read, may also identify a group of people or a single person whom the letter directly addresses. In everyday use, the most-used forms are business letters and personal or friendly letters. Both kinds share common elements: business or personal letterhead stationery; the writer’s return address at the top; the addressee’s address next; a salutation, such as “Dear [name]” or some similar opening greeting, followed by a colon in business letters or a comma in personal letters; the body of the letter, with paragraphs as indicated; and a closing, like “Sincerely/Cordially/Best regards/etc.” or “Love,” in intimate personal letters.

The Greek word for “letter” is epistolē, which became the English word “epistle.” The earliest letters were called epistles, including the New Testament’s epistles from the apostles to the Christians. In ancient Egypt, the writing curriculum in scribal schools included the epistolary genre. Epistolary novels frame a story in the form of letters. For example, 18th-century English novelist Samuel Richardson wrote the popular epistolary novels Pamela (1740) and Clarissa (1749). Henry Fielding’s satire of Pamela, entitled Shamela (1741) mocked epistolary writing. French author Montesquieu wrote Lettres persanes (1721); Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse (1761); and Pierre Choderlos de Laclos penned Les Liaisons dangereuses (1782), which was adapted into a screenplay for the multiple Oscar-winning 1988 English-language movie Dangerous Liaisons. German author Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote The Sorrows of Young Werther in epistolary form. Frances Brooke also wrote the first North American novel, The History of Emily Montague (1769) using epistolary form. In the 19th century, epistolary novels included Honoré de Balzac’s Letters of Two Brides (1842) and Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818).

Blogs
The word “blog” is derived from “weblog” and refers to writing done exclusively on the Internet. Readers of reputable newspapers expect quality content and layouts that enable easy reading. These expectations also apply to blogs. For example, readers can easily move visually from line to line when columns are narrow, while overly wide columns cause readers to lose their places. Blogs must also be posted with layouts enabling online readers to follow them easily. However, because the way people read on computer, tablet, and smartphone screens differs from how they read print on paper, formatting and writing blog content is more complex than writing newspaper articles. Two major principles are the bases for blog-writing rules: (1) While readers of print articles skim to estimate their length, online they must scroll down to scan; therefore, blog layouts need more subheadings, graphics, and other indications of what information follows. (2) Onscreen reading can be harder on the eyes than reading printed paper, so legibility is crucial in blogs.

Rules and Rationales for Writing Blogs
Format all posts for smooth page layout and easy scanning. 
Column width should be a maximum of 80 characters, including spaces, for easier reading. 
Headings and subheadings separate text visually, enable scanning or skimming, and encourage continued reading. 
Bullet-pointed or numbered lists enable quick information location and scanning. 
Punctuation is critical, so beginners should use shorter sentences until confident. 
Blog paragraphs should be far shorter—two to six sentences each—than paragraphs written on paper to enable “chunking” because reading onscreen is more difficult. 
Sans-serif fonts are usually clearer than serif fonts, and larger font sizes are better. 
Highlight important material and draw attention with boldface, but avoid overuse. Avoid hard-to-read italics and ALL CAPITALS. Include enough blank spaces: overly busy blogs tire eyes and brains. 
Images not only break up text but also emphasize and enhance text and can attract initial reader attention. 
Use background colors judiciously to avoid distracting the eye or making it difficult to read. 
Be consistent throughout posts, since people read them in different orders. Tell a story with a beginning, middle, and end.

Outlining and Organizing Ideas
Main Ideas, Supporting Details, and Outlining a Topic
A writer often begins the first paragraph of a paper by stating the main idea or point, also known as the topic sentence. The rest of the paragraph supplies particular details that develop and support the main point. One way to visualize the relationship between the main point and supporting information is as a table: the tabletop is the main point, and each of the table’s legs is a supporting detail or group of details. Both professional authors and students can benefit from planning their writing by first making an outline of the topic. Outlines facilitate quick identification of the main point and supporting details without having to wade through the additional language that will exist in the fully developed essay, article, or paper. Outlining can also help readers to analyze a piece of existing writing for the same reason. The outline first summarizes the main idea in one sentence. Then, below that, it summarizes the supporting details in a numbered list. Writing the paper then consists of filling in the outline with detail, writing a paragraph for each supporting point, and adding an introduction and conclusion.

Introduction
The purpose of the introduction is to capture the reader’s attention and announce the essay's main idea. Normally, the introduction contains 50-80 words, or 3-5 sentences. An introduction can begin with an interesting quote, a question, or a strong opinion—something that will engage the reader’s interest and prompt them to keep reading. If you are writing your essay to a specific prompt, your introduction should include a restatement or summarization of the prompt so that the reader will have some context for your essay. Finally, your introduction should briefly state your thesis or main idea: the primary thing you hope to communicate to the reader through your essay. Don’t try to include all of the details and nuances of your thesis, or all of your reasons for it, in the introduction. That’s what the rest of the essay is for!

Thesis Statement
The thesis is the main idea of the essay. A temporary thesis should be established early in the writing process because it will serve to keep the writer focused as ideas develop. This temporary thesis is subject to change as you continue to write.

The temporary thesis has two parts: a topic (i.e., the focus of your essay based on the prompt) and a comment. The comment makes an important point about the topic. A temporary thesis should be interesting and specific. Also, you need to limit the topic to a manageable scope. These three criteria are useful tools to measure the effectiveness of any temporary thesis:

- Does the focus of my essay have enough interest to hold an audience?
- Is the focus of my essay specific enough to generate interest?
- Is the focus of my essay manageable for the time limit? Too broad? Too narrow?

The thesis should be a generalization rather than a fact because the thesis prepares readers for facts and details that support the thesis. The process of bringing the thesis into sharp focus may help in outlining major sections of the work. Once the thesis and introduction are complete, you can address the body of the work.

Supporting the Thesis
Throughout your essay, the thesis should be explained clearly and supported adequately by additional arguments. The thesis sentence needs to contain a clear statement of the purpose of your essay and a comment about the thesis. With the thesis statement, you have an opportunity to state what is noteworthy of this particular treatment of the prompt. Each sentence and paragraph should build on and support the thesis.

When you respond to the prompt, use parts of the passage to support your argument or defend your position. With supporting evidence from the passage, you strengthen your argument because readers can see your attention to the entire passage and your response to the details and facts within the passage. You can use facts, details, statistics, and direct quotations from the passage to uphold your position. Be sure to point out which information comes from the original passage and base your argument around that evidence.

Body
In an essay’s introduction, the writer establishes the thesis and may indicate how the rest of the piece will be structured. In the body of the piece, the writer elaborates upon, illustrates, and explains the thesis statement. How writers sequence supporting details and their choices of paragraph types are development techniques. Writers may give examples of the concept introduced in the thesis statement. If the subject includes a cause-and-effect relationship, the author may explain its causality. A writer will explain and/or analyze the main idea of the piece throughout the body, often by presenting arguments for the veracity or credibility of the thesis statement. Writers may use development to define or clarify ambiguous terms. Paragraphs within the body may be organized with natural sequences, like space and time. Writers may employ inductive reasoning, using multiple details to establish a generalization or causal relationship, or deductive reasoning, proving a generalized hypothesis or proposition through a specific example/case.

Paragraphs
After the introduction of a passage, a series of body paragraphs will carry a message through to the conclusion. A paragraph should be unified around a main point. Normally, a good topic sentence summarizes the paragraph’s main point. A topic sentence is a general sentence that gives an introduction to the paragraph.

The sentences that follow support the topic sentence. However, the topic sentence can come as the final sentence to the paragraph if the earlier sentences give a clear explanation of the topic sentence. Overall, the paragraphs need to stay true to the main point. This means that any unnecessary sentences that do not advance the main point should be removed.

The main point of a paragraph requires adequate development (i.e., a substantial paragraph that covers the main point). A paragraph of two or three sentences does not cover a main point. This is true when the main point of the paragraph gives strong support to the argument of the thesis. An occasional short paragraph is fine as a transitional device. However, a well-developed argument will have paragraphs with more than a few sentences.

Methods of Developing Paragraphs
Common methods of adding substance to paragraphs include examples, illustrations, analogies, and cause and effect.

- Examples are the supporting details to the main idea of a paragraph or a passage. When authors write about something that their audience may not understand, they can provide an example to show their point. When authors write about something that is not easily accepted, they can give examples to prove their point.

- Illustrations are extended examples that require several sentences. Well selected illustrations can be a great way for authors to develop a point that may not be familiar to their audience.

- Analogies make comparisons between items that appear to have nothing in common. Analogies are employed by writers to provoke fresh thoughts about a subject. These comparisons may be used to explain the unfamiliar, to clarify an abstract point, or to argue a point. Although analogies are effective literary devices, they should be used carefully in arguments. Two things may be alike in some respects but completely different in others.

- Cause and effect is an excellent device used when the cause and effect are accepted as true. One way that authors can use cause and effect is to state the effect in the topic sentence of a paragraph and add the causes in the body of the paragraph. With this method, an author’s paragraphs can have structure which always strengthens writing.

Types of Paragraphs
A paragraph of narration tells a story or a part of a story. Normally, the sentences are arranged in chronological order (i.e., the order that the events happened). However, flashbacks (i.e., an anecdote from an earlier time) can be included.

A descriptive paragraph makes a verbal portrait of a person, place, or thing. When specific details are used that appeal to one or more of the senses (i.e., sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch), authors give readers a sense of being present in the moment.

A process paragraph is related to time order (i.e., First, you open the bottle. Second, you pour the liquid, etc.). Usually, this describes a process or teaches readers how to perform a process.

Comparing two things draws attention to their similarities and indicates a number of differences. When authors contrast, they focus only on differences. Both comparing and contrasting may be done point-by-point, noting both the similarities and differences of each point, or in sequential paragraphs, where you discuss the all the similarities and then all the differences, or vice versa.

Breaking Text into Paragraphs
For most forms of writing, you will need to use multiple paragraphs. As such, determining when to start a new paragraph is very important. Reasons for starting a new paragraph include:

1. To mark off the introduction and concluding paragraphs

2. To signal a shift to a new idea or topic

3. To indicate an important shift in time or place

4. To explain a point in additional detail

5. To highlight a comparison, contrast, or cause and effect relationship

Paragraph Length
Most readers find that their comfort level for a paragraph is between 100 and 200 words. Shorter paragraphs cause too much starting and stopping, and give a choppy effect. Paragraphs that are too long often test the attention span of readers. Two notable exceptions to this rule exist. In scientific or scholarly papers, longer paragraphs suggest seriousness and depth. In journalistic writing, constraints are placed on paragraph size by the narrow columns in a newspaper format.

The first and last paragraphs of a text will usually be the introduction and conclusion. These special-purpose paragraphs are likely to be shorter than paragraphs in the body of the work. Paragraphs in the body of the essay follow the subject’s outline; one paragraph per point in short essays and a group of paragraphs per point in longer works. Some ideas require more development than others, so it is good for a writer to remain flexible. A paragraph of excessive length may be divided, and shorter ones may be combined.

Coherent Paragraphs
A smooth flow of sentences and paragraphs without gaps, shifts, or bumps will lead to paragraph coherence. Ties between old and new information can be smoothed by several methods:

- Linking ideas clearly, from the topic sentence to the body of the paragraph, is essential for a smooth transition. The topic sentence states the main point, and this should be followed by specific details, examples, and illustrations that support the topic sentence. The support may be direct or indirect. In indirect support, the illustrations and examples may support a sentence that in turn supports the topic directly.
- The repetition of key words adds coherence to a paragraph. To avoid dull language, variations of the key words may be used.
- Parallel structures are often used within sentences to emphasize the similarity of ideas and connect sentences giving similar information.
- Maintaining a consistent verb tense throughout the paragraph helps. Shifting tenses affects the smooth flow of words and can disrupt the coherence of the paragraph.

Sequence Words and Phrases
When a paragraph opens with the topic sentence, the second sentence may begin with a phrase like “First of all,” introducing the first supporting detail/example. The writer may introduce the second supporting item with words or phrases like “Also,” “In addition,” and “Besides.” The writer might introduce succeeding pieces of support with wording like, “Another thing,” “Moreover” “Furthermore,” or “Not only that, but.” The writer may introduce the last piece of support with “Lastly,” “Finally,” or “Last but not least.” Writers get off the point by presenting “off-target” items not supporting the main point. For example, a main point “My dog is not smart” is supported by the statement, “He’s six years old and still doesn’t answer to his name.” But “He cries when I leave for school” is not supportive, as it does not indicate lack of intelligence. Writers stay on point by presenting only supportive statements that are directly relevant to and illustrative of their main point.

Transitions
Transitions between sentences and paragraphs guide readers from idea to idea. They also indicate relationships between sentences and paragraphs. Writers should be judicious in their use of transitions, inserting them sparingly. They should also be selected to fit the author’s purpose—transitions can indicate time, comparison, and conclusion, among other purposes.

Types of Transitional Words

Time
Afterward, immediately, earlier, meanwhile, recently, lately, now, since, soon, when, then, until, before, etc.

Sequence
too, first, second, further, moreover, also, again, and, next, still, too, besides, and finally

Comparison
similarly, in the same way, likewise, also, again, and once more

Contrasting

but, although, despite, however, instead, nevertheless, on the one hand... on the other hand, regardless, yet, and in contrast.

Cause and Effect
because, consequently, thus, therefore, then, to this end, since, so, as a result, if... then, and accordingly

Examples
for example, for instance, such as, to illustrate, indeed, in fact, and specifically

Place
near, far, here, there, to the left/right, next to, above, below, beyond, opposite, and beside

Concession
granted that, naturally, of course, it may appear, and although it is true that

Repetition, Summary, or Conclusion
as mentioned earlier, as noted, in other words, in short, on the whole, to summarize, therefore, as a result, to conclude, and in conclusion

Conclusion
Two important principles to consider when writing a conclusion are strength and closure. A strong conclusion gives the reader a sense that the author’s main points are meaningful and important, and that the supporting facts and arguments are convincing, solid, and well developed. When a conclusion achieves closure, it gives the impression that the writer has stated what needed stating and completed the work, rather than simply stopping after a specified length. Some things to avoid when writing concluding paragraphs include: introducing a completely new idea, beginning with obvious or unoriginal phrases like “In conclusion” or “To summarize,” apologizing for one’s opinions or writing, repeating the thesis word for word rather than rephrasing it, and believing that the conclusion must always summarize the piece.

Style and Form
Writing Style and Linguistic Form
Linguistic form encodes the literal meanings of words and sentences. It comes from the phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic parts of a language. Writing style consists of different ways of encoding the meaning and indicating figurative and stylistic meanings. An author’s writing style can also be referred to as his or her voice.

Writers’ stylistic choices accomplish three basic effects on their audiences:

- They communicate meanings beyond linguistically dictated meanings,
- They communicate the author’s attitude, such as persuasive/argumentative effects accomplished through style, and
- They communicate or express feelings.

Within style, component areas include: narrative structure; viewpoint; focus; sound patterns; meter and rhythm; lexical and syntactic repetition and parallelism; writing genre; representational, realistic, and mimetic effects; representation of thought and speech; meta-representation (representing representation); irony; metaphor and other indirect meanings; representation and use of historical and dialectal variations; gender-specific and other group-specific speech styles, both real and fictitious; and analysis of the processes for inferring meaning from writing.

Level of Formality
The relationship between writer and reader is important in choosing a level of formality as most writing requires some degree of formality. Formal writing is for addressing a superior in a school or work environment. Business letters, textbooks, and newspapers use a moderate to high level of formality. Informal writing is appropriate for private letters, personal e-mails, and business correspondence between close associates.

For your exam, you will want to be aware of informal and formal writing. One way that this can be accomplished is to watch for shifts in point of view in the essay. For example, unless writers are using a personal example, they will rarely refer to themselves (e.g., “I think that my point is very clear.”) to avoid being informal when they need to be formal.

Also, be mindful of an author who addresses his or her audience directly in their writing (e.g., “Readers, like you, will understand this argument.”) as this can be a sign of informal writing. Good writers understand the need to be consistent with their level of formality. Shifts in levels of formality or point of view can confuse readers and cause them to discount the message.

Clichés
Clichés are phrases that have been overused to the point that the phrase has no importance or has lost the original meaning. These phrases have no originality and add very little to a passage. Therefore, most writers will avoid the use of clichés. Another option is to make changes to a cliché so that it is not predictable and empty of meaning.

Examples:
When life gives you lemons, make lemonade.
Every cloud has a silver lining.

Jargon
Jargon is a specialized vocabulary that is used among members of a trade or profession. Since jargon is understood by only a small audience, writers will use jargon in passages that will only be read by a specialized audience. For example, medical jargon should be used in a medical journal but not in a New York Times article. Jargon includes exaggerated language that tries to impress rather than inform. Sentences filled with jargon are not precise and are difficult to understand.

Examples:
“He is going to toenail these frames for us.” (Toenail is construction jargon for nailing at an angle.)
“They brought in a kip of material today.” (Kip refers to 1000 pounds in architecture and engineering.)

Slang
Slang is an informal and sometimes private language that is understood by some individuals. Slang has some usefulness, but the language can have a small audience. So, most formal writing will not include this kind of language.

Examples:
“Yes, the event was a blast!” (In this sentence, blast means that the event was a great experience.)
“That attempt was an epic fail.” (By epic fail, the speaker means that his or her attempt was not a success.)

Colloquialism
A colloquialism is a word or phrase that is found in informal writing. Unlike slang, colloquial language will be familiar to a greater range of people. Colloquial language can include some slang, but these are limited to contractions for the most part.

Examples:

“Can y’all come back another time?” (Y’all is a contraction of “you all” which has become a colloquialism.)

“Will you stop him from building this castle in the air?” (A “castle in the air” is an improbable or unlikely event.)

Tone
Tone may be defined as the writer’s attitude toward the topic, and to the audience. This attitude is reflected in the language used in the writing. The tone of a work should be appropriate to the topic and to the intended audience. Some texts should not contain slang or jargon, although these may be fine in a different piece. Tone can range from humorous to serious and all levels in between. It may be more or less formal, depending on the purpose of the writing and its intended audience. All these nuances in tone can flavor the entire writing and should be kept in mind as the work evolves.

Word Selection
A writer's choice of words is a signature of their style. Careful thought about the use of words can improve a piece of writing. A passage can be an exciting piece to read when attention is given to the use of vivid or specific nouns rather than general ones.

Example:

General: His kindness will never be forgotten.
Specific: His thoughtful gifts and bear hugs will never be forgotten.

Attention should also be given to the kind of verbs that are used in sentences. Active verbs (e.g., run, swim) should be about an action. Whenever possible, an active verb should replace a linking verb to provide clear examples for arguments and to strengthen a passage overall. When using an active verb, one should be sure that the verb is used in the active voice instead of the passive voice. Verbs are in the active voice when the subject is the one doing the action. A verb is in the passive voice when the subject is the recipient of an action.

Example:

Passive: The winners were called to the stage by the judges.
Active: The judges called the winners to the stage.

Conciseness
Conciseness is writing what you need to get your message across in the fewest words possible. Planning is important in writing concise messages. If you have in mind what you need to write beforehand, it will be easier to make a message short and to the point. Do not state the obvious.

Revising is also important. After the message is written, make sure you have short sentences. When reviewing the information, imagine a conversation taking place, and concise writing will likely result.

Transitions
Transitions are bridges between what has been read and what is about to be read. Transitions smooth the reader’s path between sentences and inform the reader of major connections to new ideas forthcoming in the text. Transitional phrases should be used with care, selecting the appropriate phrase for a transition. Tone is another important consideration in using transitional phrases, varying the tone for different audiences. For example, in a scholarly essay, in summary would be preferable to the more informal in short.

When working with transitional words and phrases, writers usually find a natural flow that indicates when a transition is needed. In reading a draft of the text, it should become apparent where the flow is uneven or rough. At this point, the writer can add transitional elements during the revision process. Revising can also afford an opportunity to delete transitional devices that seem heavy handed or unnecessary.

Types of Transitions
Appropriate transition words help clarify the relationships between sentences and paragraphs, and they create a much more cohesive essay. Below are listed several categories of transitions that you will need to be familiar with, along with some associated transition words:

- Logical Continuation: therefore, as such, for this reason, thus, consequently, as a result
- Extended Argument: moreover, furthermore, also
- Example or Illustration: for instance, for example
- Comparison: similarly, likewise, in like manner
- Contrast: however, nevertheless, by contrast
- Restatement or Clarification: in other words, to put it another way
- Generalization or General Application: in broad terms, broadly speaking, in general

Rhetorical Devices
Rhetorical Devices
There are many types of language devices that authors use to convey their meaning in a descriptive way. Understanding these concepts will help you understand what you read. These types of devices are called figurative language—language that goes beyond the literal meaning of a word or phrase. Descriptive language specifically evokes imagery in the reader’s mind to make a story come alive. Exaggeration is a type of figurative language in which an author carries an idea beyond the truth in order to emphasize something. A simile is a type of figurative language that compares two things that are not actually alike, using words such as like and as. A metaphor takes the comparison one step further by fully equating the two things rather than just saying they are similar.

A figure-of-speech is a word or phrase that departs from straightforward, literal language. Figures-of-speech are often used and crafted for emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity. However, clarity of a passage may suffer from use of these devices. As an example of the figurative use of a word, consider the sentence: I am going to crown you. The author may mean:

- I am going to place a literal crown on your head.
- I am going to symbolically exalt you to the place of kingship.
- I am going to punch you in the head with my clenched fist.
- I am going to put a second checker piece on top of your checker piece to signify that it has become a king.

A metaphor is a type of figurative language in which the writer equates something with another thing that is not particularly similar. For instance, the bird was an arrow arcing through the sky. In this sentence, the arrow is serving as a metaphor for the bird. The point of a metaphor is to encourage the reader to consider the item being described in a different way. Let’s continue with this metaphor for a bird. You are asked to envision the bird’s flight as being similar to the arc of an arrow. So, you imagine the flight to be swift and bending. Metaphors are a way for the author to describe an item without being direct and obvious. This literary device is a lyrical and suggestive way of providing information. Note that the reference for a metaphor will not always be mentioned explicitly by the author. Consider the following description of a forest in winter: Swaying skeletons reached for the sky and groaned as the wind blew through them. In this example, the author is using skeletons as a metaphor for leafless trees. This metaphor creates a spooky tone while inspiring the reader’s imagination.

A simile is a figurative expression that is similar to a metaphor, but the expression uses a distancing word: like or as. Examples include phrases such as the sun was like an orange, eager as a beaver, and nimble as a mountain goat. Because a simile includes like or as, the device creates more space between the description and the thing being described than a metaphor does. If an author says that a house was like a shoebox, then the tone is different than the author saying that the house was a shoebox. Authors will choose between a metaphor and a simile depending on their intended tone.

Another type of figurative language is personification. This is describing a nonhuman thing as if the item were human. Literally, the word means the process of making something into a person. The general intent of personification is to describe things in a manner that will be comprehensible to readers. When an author states that a tree groans in the wind, he or she does not mean that the tree is emitting a low, pained sound from a mouth. Instead, the author means that the tree is making a noise similar to a human groan. Of course, this personification establishes a tone of sadness or suffering. A different tone would be established if the author said that the tree was swaying or dancing.

Target Audience
Considerations to Teach Students About Occasions, Purposes, and Audiences
Teachers can explain to students that organizing their ideas, providing evidence to support the points they make in their writing, and correcting their grammar and mechanics are not simply for following writing rules or correctness for its own sake, but rather for ensuring that specific reader audiences understand what they intend to communicate. For example, upper-elementary-grade students writing for lower-elementary-grade students should write in print rather than script, use simpler vocabulary, and avoid writing in long, complex, compound, or complex-compound sentences. The purpose for writing guides word choice, such as encouraging readers to question opposing viewpoints or stimulate empathy and/or sympathy. It also influences narrative, descriptive, expository, or persuasive/argumentative format. For instance, business letters require different form and language than parent thank-you notes. Persuasive techniques, like words that evoke certain reader emotions, description that appeals to reader beliefs, and supporting information can all affect reader opinions.

Questions to Determine Content and Format
When student writers have chosen a viewpoint or idea about which to write, teachers can help them select content to include and the writing format most appropriate to their subject. They should have students ask themselves what their readers need to know to enable them to agree with the viewpoint in the writing, or to believe what the writer is saying. Students can imagine another person hearing them say what they will write about, and responding, “Oh, yeah? Prove that!” Teachers should have students ask themselves what kinds of evidence they need to prove their positions and ideas to skeptical readers. They should have students consider what points might cause the reader to disagree. Students should consider what knowledge their reading audience shares in common with them. They should also consider what information they need to share with their readers. Teachers can have students adapt various writing formats, organizing techniques, and writing styles to different purposes and audiences to practice choosing writing modes and language.

Appropriate Kinds of Writing for Different Tasks, Purposes, and Audiences
Students who are writing to persuade their parents to grant some additional privilege, such as permission for a more independent activity, should use more sophisticated vocabulary and diction that sounds more mature and serious to appeal to the parental audience. Students who are writing for younger children, however, should use simpler vocabulary and sentence structure, as well as choose words that are more vivid and entertaining. They should treat their topics more lightly, and include humor as appropriate. Students who are writing for their classmates may use language that is more informal, as well as age-appropriate. Students wanting to convince others to agree with them should use persuasive/argumentative form. Those wanting to share an experience should use descriptive writing. Those wanting to relate a story and what can be learned from it should write narratives. Students can use speculative writing to invite others to join them in exploring ideas.

Vocabulary and Syntax

Dialect
Dialect is the form of a language spoken by people according to their geographical region, social class, cultural group, or any other distinctive group. It includes pronunciation, grammar, and spelling. Literary authors often use dialect when writing dialogue to illustrate the social and geographical backgrounds of specific characters, which supports character development. For example, in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885), Mark Twain’s novel is written in the dialect of a young and uneducated white Southern character, opening with this sentence: “You don’t know about me without you have read a book by the name of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, but that ain’t no matter.” Twain uses a different and exaggerated dialect to represent the speech of the African-American slave Jim: “We’s safe, Huck, we’s safe! Jump up and crack yo’ heels. Dat’s de good ole Cairo at las’, I jis knows it.”

Use of Dialect in Media
In To Kill a Mockingbird, author Harper Lee used dialect in the characters’ dialogue to portray an uneducated boy in the American South: “Reckon I have. Almost died the first year I come to school and et them pecans—folks say he pizened ‘em.” Lee also uses many Southern regional expressions, such as “right stove up,” “What in the sam holy hill?”, “sit a spell,” “fess” (meaning “confess”), “jim-dandy,” and “hush your fussing.” These contribute to Lee’s characterization of the people she describes, who live in a small town in Alabama circa the 1930s. In Wuthering Heights (1847), Emily Bronte reproduces Britain’s 18th-19th-century Yorkshire dialect in the speech of servant Joseph: “Running after t’lads, as usuald!... If I war yah, maister, I’d just slam t’boards i’ their faces all on ‘em, gentle and simple! Never a day ut yah’re off, but yon cat o’ Linton comes sneaking hither; and Miss Nelly, shoo’s a fine lass!”

In addition to using dialects to support character development in novels, plays, poems, and other literary works, authors also manipulate dialects to accomplish various purposes with their intended reading audiences. For example, in an English Language Arts lesson plan for eighth graders (Groome and Gibbs, 2008), teachers point out author Frances O’Roark Dowell set her novel Dovey Coe (2000) in the Western North Carolina mountains of 1928. Dowell writes protagonist Dovey’s narration in the regional Appalachian Mountain dialect to remind readers of the significance of the novel’s setting. This lesson plan further includes two poems by African-American author Paul Laurence Dunbar: “When Malindy Sings” and “We Wear the Mask.” Students are asked why Dunbar wrote the former poem in Southern slave dialect and the latter in Standard English. Exercises include identifying dialect and Standard English features, rewriting dialect in Standard English, identifying audiences, and identifying how author choices of dialects or Standard English affect readers and accomplish author purposes.

Dialect vs. Diction
When written as characters’ dialogue in literary works, dialect represents the particular pronunciation, grammar, and figurative expressions used by certain groups of people based on their geographic region, social class, and cultural background. For example, when a character says, “There’s gold up in them thar hills,” the author is using dialect to add to the characterization of that individual. Diction is more related to individual characters than to groups of people. The way in which a specific character speaks, including his or her choice of words, manner of expressing himself or herself, and use of grammar all represent individual types of diction. For example, two characters in the same novel might describe the same action or event using different diction: One says “I’m heading uptown for the evening,” and the other says “I’m going out for a night on the town.” These convey the same literal meaning, but due to their variations in diction they are expressed in different ways.

Simple Survey Research into Linguistic Dialects
To learn about different dialects spoken in different geographic regions, social classes, and cultural groups, students can create simple surveys of small groups of informants. Students should first make a list of words they have heard used in certain dialects. Then they can ask their respondents to identify the words they know. Students can also ask respondents to identify words they have heard of but cannot define. Using their lists of dialect words, students can ask informants to identify which words they use in their day-to-day conversations. For a more multidimensional survey, a student can ask the sampled informants all three questions—words that they know, those that they have heard of but do not know the meanings of, and those that they use in their speech.

Influences on Regional Dialect
Linguistic researchers have identified regional variations in vocabulary choices, which have evolved because of differences in local climates and how they influence human behaviors. For example, in the Southern United States, the Linguistic Atlas of the Gulf States (LAGS) Project by Dr. Lee Pederson of Emory University discovered and documented that people living in the northern or Upland section of the Piedmont plateau region call the fungal infection commonly known as athlete’s foot “toe itch,” but people living in the southern or Lowland section call it “ground itch.” The explanation for this difference is that in the north, temperatures are cooler and people accordingly wear shoes, so they associate the itching with the feet in their description, but in the south, temperatures are hotter and people traditionally went barefoot, so they associated the itching with the ground that presumably transmitted the infection.

Affixes
Affixes in the English language are morphemes that are added to words to create related but different words. Derivational affixes form new words based on and related to the original words. For example, the affix –ness added to the end of the adjective happy forms the noun happiness. Inflectional affixes form different grammatical versions of words. For example, the plural affix –s changes the singular noun book to the plural noun books, and the past tense affix –ed changes the present tense verb look to the past tense looked. Prefixes are affixes placed in front of words. For example, heat means to make hot; preheat means to heat in advance. Suffixes are affixes placed at the ends of words. The happiness example above contains the suffix –ness. Circumfixes add parts both before and after words, such as how light becomes enlighten with the prefix en- and the suffix –en. Interfixes create compound words via central affixes: speed and meter become speedometer via the interfix –o–.

Word Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes to Help Determine Meanings of Words
Many English words were formed from combining multiple sources. For example, the Latin habēre means “to have,” and the prefixes in- and im- mean a lack or prevention of something, as in insufficient and imperfect. Latin combined in- with habēre to form inhibēre, whose past participle was inhibitus. This is the origin of the English word inhibit, meaning to prevent from having. Hence by knowing the meanings of both the prefix and the root, one can decipher the word meaning. In Greek, the root enkephalo- refers to the brain. Many medical terms are based on this root, such as encephalitis and hydrocephalus. Understanding the prefix and suffix meanings (-itis means inflammation; hydro- means water) allows a person to deduce that encephalitis refers to brain inflammation and hydrocephalus refers to water (or other fluid) on the brain

Prefixes
While knowing prefix meanings helps ESL and beginning readers learn new words, other readers take for granted the meanings of known words. However, prefix knowledge will also benefit them for determining meanings or definitions of unfamiliar words. For example, native English speakers and readers familiar with recipes know what preheat means. Knowing that pre- means in advance can also inform them that presume means to assume in advance, that prejudice means advance judgment, and that this understanding can be applied to many other words beginning with pre-. Knowing that the prefix dis- indicates opposition informs the meanings of words like disbar, disagree, disestablish, and many more. Knowing dys- means bad, impaired, abnormal, or difficult informs dyslogistic, dysfunctional, dysphagia, and dysplasia.

Suffixes
In English, certain suffixes generally indicate both that a word is a noun, and that the noun represents a state of being or quality. For example, -ness is commonly used to change an adjective into its noun form, as with happy and happiness, nice and niceness, and so on. The suffix –tion is commonly used to transform a verb into its noun form, as with converse and conversation or move and motion. Thus, if readers are unfamiliar with the second form of a word, knowing the meaning of the transforming suffix can help them determine meaning.

Context Clues to Help Determine Meanings of Words
If readers simply bypass unknown words, they can reach unclear conclusions about what they read. However, looking for the definition of every unfamiliar word in the dictionary can slow their reading progress. Moreover, the dictionary may list multiple definitions for a word, so readers must search the word’s context for meaning. Hence context is important to new vocabulary regardless of reader methods. Four types of context clues are examples, definitions, descriptive words, and opposites. Authors may use a certain word, and then follow it with several different examples of what it describes. Sometimes authors actually supply a definition of a word they use, which is especially true in informational and technical texts. Authors may use descriptive words that elaborate upon a vocabulary word they just used. Authors may also use opposites with negation that help define meaning.

Examples and Definitions
An author may use a word and then give examples that illustrate its meaning. Consider this text: “Teachers who do not know how to use sign language can help students who are deaf or hard of hearing understand certain instructions by using gestures instead, like pointing their fingers to indicate which direction to look or go; holding up a hand, palm outward, to indicate stopping; holding the hands flat, palms up, curling a finger toward oneself in a beckoning motion to indicate ‘come here’; or curling all fingers toward oneself repeatedly to indicate ‘come on’, ‘more’, or ‘continue.’” The author of this text has used the word “gestures” and then followed it with examples, so a reader unfamiliar with the word could deduce from the examples that “gestures” means “hand motions.” Readers can find examples by looking for signal words “for example,” “for instance,” “like” “such as,” and “e.g.”

While readers sometimes have to look for definitions of unfamiliar words in a dictionary or do some work to determine a word’s meaning from its surrounding context, at other times an author may make it easier for readers by defining certain words. For example, an author may write, “The company did not have sufficient capital, that is, available money, to continue operations.” The author defined “capital” as “available money,” and heralded the definition with the phrase “that is.” Another way that authors supply word definitions is with appositives. Rather than being introduced by a signal phrase like “that is,” “namely,” or “meaning,” an appositive comes after the vocabulary word it defines and is enclosed within two commas. For example, an author may write, “The Indians introduced the Pilgrims to pemmican, cakes they made of lean meat dried and mixed with fat, which proved greatly beneficial to keep settlers from starving while trapping.” In this example, the appositive phrase following “pemmican” and preceding “which” defines the word “pemmican.”

Descriptions
When readers encounter a word they do not recognize in a text, the author may expand on that word to illustrate it better. While the author may do this to make the prose more picturesque and vivid, the reader can also take advantage of this description to provide context clues to the meaning of the unfamiliar word. For example, an author may write, “The man sitting next to me on the airplane was obese. His shirt stretched across his vast expanse of flesh, strained almost to bursting.” The descriptive second sentence elaborates on and helps to define the previous sentence’s word “obese” to mean extremely fat. One author described someone who was obese simply, yet very descriptively, as “an epic in bloat.” A reader unfamiliar with the word “repugnant” can decipher its meaning through an author’s accompanying description: “The way the child grimaced and shuddered as he swallowed the medicine showed that its taste was particularly repugnant.”

Opposites
Text authors sometimes introduce a contrasting or opposing idea before or after a concept they present. They may do this to emphasize or heighten the idea they present by contrasting it with something that is the reverse. However, readers can also use these context clues to understand familiar words. For example, an author may write, “Our conversation was not cheery. We sat and talked very solemnly about his experience and a number of similar events.” The reader who is not familiar with the word “solemnly” can deduce by the author’s preceding use of “not cheery” that “solemn” means the opposite of cheery or happy, so it must mean serious or sad. Or if someone writes, “Don’t condemn his entire project because you couldn’t find anything good to say about it,” readers unfamiliar with “condemn” can understand from the sentence structure that it means the opposite of saying anything good, so it must mean reject, dismiss, or disapprove. “Entire” adds another context clue, meaning total or complete rejection.

Syntax to Determine Part of Speech and Meanings of Words
Syntax refers to sentence structure and word order. Suppose that a reader encounters an unfamiliar word when reading a text. To illustrate, consider an invented word like “splunch.” If this word is used in a sentence like “Please splunch that ball to me,” the reader can assume from syntactic context that “splunch” is a verb. We would not use a noun, adjective, adverb, or preposition with the object “that ball,” and the prepositional phrase “to me” further indicates “splunch” represents an action. However, in the sentence, “Please hand that splunch to me,” the reader can assume that “splunch” is a noun. Demonstrative adjectives like “that” modify nouns. Also, we hand someone something—a thing being a noun; we do not hand someone a verb, adjective, or adverb. Some sentences contain further clues. For example, from the sentence, “The princess wore the glittering splunch on her head,” the reader can deduce that it is a crown, tiara, or something similar from the syntactic context, without knowing the word.

Syntax to Indicate Different Meanings of Similar Sentences
The syntax, or structure, of a sentence affords grammatical cues that aid readers in comprehending the meanings of words, phrases, and sentences in the texts that they read. Seemingly minor differences in how the words or phrases in a sentence are ordered can make major differences in meaning. For example, two sentences can use exactly the same words but have different meanings based on the word order: (1) “The man with a broken arm sat in a chair.” (2) “The man sat in a chair with a broken arm.” While both sentences indicate that a man sat in a chair, differing syntax indicates whether the man’s or chair’s arm was broken.

Nuances of Word Meaning Relative to Connotation, Denotation, Diction, and Usage
A word’s denotation is simply its objective dictionary definition. However, its connotation refers to the subjective associations, often emotional, that specific words evoke in listeners and readers. Two or more words can have the same dictionary meaning, but very different connotations. Writers use diction (word choice) to convey various nuances of thought and emotion by selecting synonyms for other words that best communicate the associations they want to trigger for readers. For example, a car engine is naturally greasy; in this sense, “greasy” is a neutral term. But when a person’s smile, appearance, or clothing is described as “greasy,” it has a negative connotation. Because of usages that have occurred in recent times, many words have gained additional and/or different meanings. The word “gay” originally meant happy or festive, as in the Christmas carol “Deck the Halls” lyrics, “Don we now our gay apparel,” but in the 20th century, it also came to indicate a sexual preference.

Figures of Speech
A figure of speech is a verbal expression whose meaning is figurative rather than literal. For example, the phrase “butterflies in the stomach” does not refer to actual butterflies in a person’s stomach. It is a metaphor representing the fluttery feelings experienced when a person is nervous or excited—or when one “falls in love,” which does not mean physically falling. “Hitting a sales target” does not mean physically hitting a target with arrows as in archery; it is a metaphor for meeting a sales quota. “Climbing the ladder of success” metaphorically likens advancing in one’s career to ascending ladder rungs. Similes, such as “light as a feather” (meaning very light, not a feather’s actual weight), and hyperbole, like “I’m starving/freezing/roasting,” are also figures of speech.