CPACE: Notes on Organizational and Systems Leadership

Managing Operational Systems

Types of Organizational Systems

Organizational Systems
A school organizational system refers to how a school is organized in relation to resources, personnel, time, and space to achieve student learning and success. Examples of school organizational models include departmental models, project-based learning models, academy models, integrative models, small community models, and the school-within-a school model, among others. The organizational system dictates the structure of the school and its systems, how personnel are allocated and what personnel are needed, what resources are needed, and how the physical space of the school is designed and utilized. Consequently, the organizational system in a school dictates how instruction is delivered and how student learning is achieved.

Types of School Organizational Systems
The different types of school organizational systems affect how instruction is delivered on campus. In the departmental model, the different subject or content areas are separated and distinct. Each of the subject-area departments have leaders or chairs who report to administration. In an integrative model, disciplines are combined or grouped together such as in the pairing of math and science classes or English and history classes. Project-based learning models facilitate interdisciplinary learning through student completion of large, extended projects. In academy models, a school may group students and classes based on college or career pathways. Small community models and school-within-a-school models are similar in that students are grouped into cohorts and remain within a small community for their instruction. Each community operates like a small school. In the school-within-a-school model, the small communities often have their own administrators. Other types of school organizational systems have developed as technology has become more accessible in schools, such as virtual schools and flipped classrooms.

Determining the Best Organizational System for a School
To determine the best organizational system for a school, a leader should first examine the school vision and goals. The organizational system should support the school vision and facilitate achievement of the school goals. For example, if the school is focused on reading performance and instruction, the leader may select a block scheduling structure to provide students with more instructional time in reading. A leader may also determine that, in order to provide socio-emotional support to students, dividing a large school into teams or houses would best facilitate relationship building and cultivate a small-school feel. A leader can also analyze the school's culture and identify the appropriate organizational system to support the ideal culture. For example, if the school vision is to create independent, life-long learners, the school organization system may involve giving students autonomy in their learning when possible. For example, the school could offer self-paced instructional programming, student course selection, and other exploratory opportunities for students.

Areas of Organizational Systems Not Directly Related to Classroom Instruction
Many organizational systems are part of the campus system but are not directly related to instruction. For example, the cafeteria represents a large system within the school. The process of feeding breakfast, lunch, and even dinner to students can be a complex organizational system. It involves providing the food, serving it, and maintaining the facilities in which it is served. This particular system may be regulated by state and federal regulations, which add additional complexities. Another organizational system is behavior management and discipline. There are processes in place to promote positive student behavior and deter negative behavior. This system may include the development and distribution of handbooks, training and communication regarding behavioral expectations, and imposing consequences for infractions. Other systems include student arrival and dismissal, extracurricular programming, counseling, and others. Even though these systems are not directly related to classroom instruction, they often support effective classroom instruction.

Systems Thinking
Systems thinking involves understanding how a system or an organization is constructed. It is an understanding of the many parts that make a system work, how those parts
interact with one another, and how those parts relate to the larger context of the system. For example, the system of providing food to students in the cafeteria is one part of the larger campus system. A leader who understands systems thinking understands that how the cafeteria functions can directly or indirectly affect the way another system functions, such as the classroom. If the cafeteria is unable to serve breakfast efficiently in the morning, students may be delayed in getting to class, which in turn impacts instruction. Therefore, systems thinking helps in understanding how the organization or system as a whole can best function by improving the function of the smaller systems that make up the whole.

Short-Term and Long-Term Plans for Improving Organizational System

Considerations for Short-Term Improvement of the School's Organizational System
A leader should evaluate the school's organizational system for continuous, short-term improvements. Factors to consider include functionality, training, and resources. The organizational system should function smoothly and efficiently. This is indicated by student and staff transitions throughout the day as well as flow of information and resources. For example, if the school's organizational system is made up of small learning communities, it would be effective to place resources such as supplies and copiers near the learning communities. Also, the leader should ensure that staff has the appropriate training to support the organizational system. For example, if the organizational system is based on a project-based learning environment, staff will need appropriate, ongoing training to support this type of system. Finally, the leader should ensure that the school has the appropriate resources, both physical and human, to support the organizational system. This may include reassigning certain resources from one area of the school to another.

Considerations for Long-Term Improvement of a School's Organizational
For long-term improvement of a school's organizational system, the leader should consider alignment to vision and goals, availability and allocation of resources, and spatial designs. First, the organizational system should support the school's vision.
For example, a virtual school environment may not be appropriately aligned to a school vision that prioritizes building social and collaborative skills in students, due to its focus on individual, computerized work. Consequently, the leader needs to determine if the school's organizational system needs to be changed to reflect the changing needs of the students and community that the school serves. Next, the leader needs to determine the availability of both physical and human resources and how those are allocated to support the school's organizational system. This may require hiring additional staff, replacing or redesigning staff positions, or acquiring new resources such as technology devices. Finally, the leader needs to consider whether the layout and organization of the physical space in the school is conducive to the school's organizational system. To implement a school-within-a-school model, for example, the leader may need to redesign or relocate certain classrooms and offices.

Physical Plant Safety and Compliance with Regulations

Effects of Physical Plant Safety on the Instructional Program
Failure to ensure the physical safety of the school plant and comply with building regulations can negatively affect the instructional program. If students and staff are in danger of being injured or hurt due to aspects of the plant that are in disrepair or do not meet codes and standards, this can interrupt the school day and cause the school and school district to be liable. For example, if the school has an elevator in use that is not up to code, there is danger of a student or staff person becoming trapped in the elevator due to malfunction. This is dangerous to the person in the elevator and would necessitate emergency personnel, causing a disruption to the instructional program. Additionally, malfunctioning equipment such as leaks, loud machinery or A/C equipment, or pest infestations are distracting to the instructional environment and may cause damage to instructional resources such as books and technology equipment.
Compliance with regulations, such as ADA codes, is important to ensure access for all students and staff, especially those with disabilities, to all areas of the campus.

Monitoring the Physical Plant for Safety and Compliance
A leader can monitor the physical plant for safety and compliance in several ways. First, a leader should have a plant operator who is responsible for ensuring the plant's safety and compliance. The leader should meet with the plant operator regularly to address any concerns that may arise. Second, the leader should conduct regular walks of the plant to inspect it for safety and compliance. During these walks, the leader should take note of plant aspects that may need repair or maintenance. Also, the leader may receive formal or informal feedback regarding needed repairs and maintenance from instructional staff. Finally, city or county officials will conduct regular inspections and provide reports.
These reports will detail aspects of the campus that are in compliance, out of compliance, or in danger of being out of compliance with regulations. The school leader can use these reports to ensure the plant's safety and compliance.

Bond Referendum
A bond referendum is a proposal to borrow funds long-term to fund major capital improvements. Since these capital improvements are costly, the bond allows the expenses to be spread over time so that the costs are covered by current and future taxpayers.
The bond must be approved by voters because of the obligation that taxpayers will have in paying for the expenses incurred by the capital improvements. Funds secured through a bond referendum can be used for construction of new schools or district facilities, renovation of existing schools or district facilities, and other updates related to the physical aspects of the plant. Bond funds can be used to help schools update their buildings to new city or county building codes, ADA requirements, and technology requirements.
Construction due to capital improvements may cause the displacement of students and staff from certain areas of the school plant where construction occurs or, in more substantial projects, relocation to another setting until construction is completed.

Communication and Data Systems

Planning for Crises
Even though crises are unpredictable, a leader can plan in advance to ensure that the school is as prepared as possible. First, the leader should have emergency plans in place for events such as natural disasters, fire, medical emergencies, intruders on campus, etc. These plans should be written and key emergency staff should be trained on how to implement the plans in time of crisis. Additionally, the leader can implement drills to practice the crisis plans. The leader can evaluate staff and student performance during these drills and provide feedback to participants or revise the emergency plans based on the performance. The leader should also be familiar with district policies regarding emergency plans, drills, and reporting. A leader should make contact with local emergency services in the community to establish a relationship and ascertain important information and contacts to help in the event of an emergency or crisis.

Effective Data Systems
Effective data systems are important for managing the organizational systems on campus. Data systems relating to student and staff population data are essential to the effective planning and management of the organizational system. For example, staffing is often determined by the number of students enrolled in the school and the allocation of those enrollment numbers to various aspects of the instructional program, such as grade levels, special populations, magnet programming, and more. Leaders must have accurate data for student enrollment in order to allocate staff to the various programs on campus. This type of data also impacts class sizes and student to teacher ratios. Additionally, areas of the campus have capacity maximums as dictated by fire code, and these limitations must be taken into consideration when planning lunch schedules, school assemblies, and other uses of school facilities. Effective data systems are also necessary to make decisions related to funding and resource acquisition and allocation, in addition to instructional decision-making.

Acquisition and Maintenance of Equipment and Technology

Determining What Equipment to Acquire and When
A leader must decide if new equipment is necessary for the effective operation of the physical plant as well as the implementation of the instructional program. A leader should be aware of the life expectancy of the various equipment that is already on campus so that he or she can determine when new equipment may be needed. This helps in the planning of maintenance, repair, and replacement cycles. Also, the leader must determine if equipment is mandatory or optional. Equipment that must be present on campus for its operation is prioritized over equipment that can be acquired or repaired at a later date. For example, a leader may need to postpone the acquisition of new science lab equipment in order to repair air conditioning units. School finances must also be considered when contemplating the acquisition of new equipment. A leader may need to postpone the purchase of major equipment until a new fiscal year due to budget constraints. The school leader should also consider the impact of the new equipment. If the purchase of new equipment will impact the majority of the students or staff, it can be placed higher on the priority list than equipment that may impact a small group of students, such as a student organization or specialized instructional program.

Role of Technology on Campus
Technology on campus impacts campus safety, communication, and instruction. Technology hardware and software are vital to the school. Technology can be used to assist with campus safety. For example, cameras are placed on campus to monitor activity. These cameras and the associated software necessary for monitoring and recording the camera feeds are important to school safety. Other technology used for safety includes intercom systems for screening of visitors, software to conduct background checks of visitors and volunteers, and automated door locking systems. Technology also aids in effective communication on campus. Emails, intercoms and radios, PA systems, marquees, and other forms of technology are used to communicate to staff and students. Also, technology is very useful for instruction. Computers, projectors, printers, and many other technological devices enhance the quality of instruction that is provided to students. Both staff and students may use these devices as part of the instructional routine.

Safety

Physical and Emotionally Safe Environments and Policy for Students and Staff

Physically Safe Environment
A physically safe environment is free from seen and unseen dangers that would pose a threat to the physical safety of anyone exposed to the environment. A physically safe environment is in good repair, accessible to all, and accommodating to its designated purpose. For example, a physically safe classroom would be free from damaged walls, ceilings, or floors; broken or damaged furniture; leaky pipes or plumbing; and electrical hazards. Additionally, a physically safe environment includes well-controlled people so that no one is physically harmed by the presence of others. This includes adhering to capacity limitations and monitoring the conduct of those present in the environment. For example, a school cafeteria should not exceed the posted maximum capacity of people, even for special events, and people should be able to move safely and freely in the cafeteria in accordance with its purpose.

Emotionally Safe Environment A. emotionally safe environment is an environment in which all people are able to learn. This type of environment is free from all obstacles, emotions, and conflicts due to preventative strategies and quick resolutions. When an environment is not emotionally safe, children can feel fear, anxiety, and a host of other emotions. In an emotionally safe environment, both adults and children feel comfortable participating in the learning environment and interacting with one another. There is an absence of peer-to-peer and peer-to-adult conflict as well as bullying. Procedures and systems, such as counseling, mentoring, and other interventions, are in place to ensure the emotional safety of students on campus. There is an emphasis on communicating one's needs to foster active participation and engagement in the learning process. Additionally, the physical arrangement of the environment is designed to contribute to emotional safety, such as including windows and natural lighting, inspirational and positive posters and bulletin boards, and aesthetically pleasing furniture and decoration.

Ensuring the School Physical Plant, Equipment, and Support Systems Operate Safely, Efficiently, and Effectively
A leader must ensure that the school's physical plant, equipment, and support systems operate safely, efficiently, and effectively. The first step is to identify the appropriate staff to manage the physical plant. This person has the primary responsibility to ensure the safe functioning of everything on campus, so the leader must have the right person in place and must monitor his or her performance. Also, the leader must provide the plant manager with competent staff to support plant maintenance. In partnership with the manager, the leader can develop systems of monitoring and inspection to ensure that all aspects of the plant are running efficiently and safely. The school leader should also solicit feedback from other staff members who use certain aspects of the school plant. For example, if the school has a swimming pool, the leader should get feedback from the swimming coach or athletic director regarding the pool facilities. This feedback can help to identify areas of improvement, repair, or replacement needs.

Roles That Local, State, and Federal Laws and Policies Play in Maintaining a Safe Environment
Local, state, and federal laws and policies help school leaders maintain a safe environment for students and staff. These regulations and policies, when adhered to, create a minimum level of safety. For example, federal laws regarding aspects of school safety such as asbestos management, ADA compliance, internet safety, and others are interpreted into school policies. School districts may have additional safety requirements, such as the presence of police officers on campus, campus visitor policies, volunteer policies, and others. Local laws and policies may include fire codes and occupation limits, as well as other mandates for building safety that are not particular to schools but are implemented in all public places in the area. Each of these regulations and policies is meant to enhance the safety of the school, so the school leader should prioritize adherence to these regulations and policies. Failure to comply with local, state, and federal laws and policies can result in sanctions, fines, or other repercussions.

Maintaining a Physically Safe Environment for Students
A leader should take proactive steps to maintain a physically safe environment for students. First, the school leader should conduct regular inspection and maintenance of all parts of the building to ensure that no aspects of the physical building pose hazards to students. Next, the school leader should monitor flows of traffic within the school building to maintain safety. For example, a leader may notice that a school banner obstructs visibility in a hallway, causing students to bump into one another during transitions between classes. To promote safety, the leader should relocate the banner to a different area of the school. The leader should also ensure that common assembly areas such as hallways, courtyards, auditoriums, and others are monitored by school staff to prevent or identify conflict between students that could lead to physical harm.

Maintaining an Emotionally Safe Environment for Staff
Like the students, staff members need an emotionally safe environment. A leader can establish and maintain an emotionally safe environment through leadership style, communication, awareness, and support. When a leader has a caring and empathetic demeanor, employees will feel emotionally safe. In contrast, high-strung, micromanaging leaders can create fear and anxiety in staff. Also, leaders need to maintain open lines of communication with staff members. This allows them to communicate their needs so the leader can address them when possible. A leader should be able to recognize and be aware of aspects of the environment that endanger emotional safety for staff and should be able to address those concerns. For example, a lax discipline policy can create a challenging environment for teachers and staff. A leader can take steps to remedy this and create a safer environment. Finally, a leader should provide avenues of emotional support for staff. This may include staff counseling, referrals, or other accommodations and support that can help staff members feel emotionally safe.

Normative Behavior Expectations for Staff and 
Role of Student Behavior in Maintaining a Safe Environment
Student behavior must be regulated and controlled for a safe school environment. Students who are unsupervised or do not adhere to established rules and procedures pose a threat to the safety of the school and to themselves. As a result, student behavior management is necessary to maintain a safe environment. School staff and ultimately the school leader are responsible for the safety of students the entire time they are at school. Unsupervised students may lead to an unsafe environment since they are less prone to follow rules when supervision is absent. All students should be accounted for at all times and actively monitored. Additionally, students who misbehave can cause disruption, conflict, destruction of property, and a host of other actions that threaten the safety of the school environment. As a result, negative student behavior must be addressed quickly and effectively to maintain a safe environment.

Behavior Management and Discipline Strategies to Use to Manage Student Behavior
A leader may use a variety of behavior management and discipline strategies, as well as instructing staff to use them, to properly manage student behavior. These different techniques and strategies almost all have certain characteristics in common. Effective behavior management requires active supervision. It is not enough for adults to be present wherever students are. They must survey students, anticipate student behaviors, and be prepared to intervene when necessary. Also, most strategies require that adults set clear expectations for student behavior. This can be done through establishing rules, behavior contracts, or other ways to articulate expectations. Finally, there must be clear consequences, applied fairly and equitably, for behavioral infractions. Many behavior management strategies encourage building relationships and rapport with students, incorporating positive consequences for appropriate student behavior, and addressing student behaviors without overly emotional responses such as yelling, sarcasm, or unprofessional language.

Student Behavior Management and Student Success
Student behavior management and student success are related because poor student behavior detracts from the learning environment. If a student is behaving in a disruptive or disengaged way in the classroom, he or she cannot learn effectively. If the poorly-behaved student misses the instructional content, he or she will be less likely to succeed academically in that class. Poor student behavior can also negatively impact the academic success of other students in the room. For example, speaking out of turn, interrupting, and bothering others detracts from the learning environment. Finally, some behavioral consequences require the misbehaving student to be removed from the classroom. In these instances, the student often loses out on instructional opportunities, which can negatively impact academic success. Consequently, when student behavior is appropriately managed, the learning environment is preserved and all students have an opportunity to learn in a safe environment.

Importance of Fairness and Equity in Applying Student Behavior Management Principles
Student behavior management strategies and discipline must be applied in a fair and equitable manner to be effective and maintain a positive school environment. Fairness involves communicating expectations prior to applying discipline. If expectations are unknown or unclear, students can be frustrated and deem it unfair to be held responsible. Fairness also means that the adults adhere to the expectations and consequences that have been communicated to students and parents. For example, a behavior strategy may be to give a student a warning before applying consequences. A teacher may give students multiple warnings on one day and never give consequences for a particular behavior, but on another day, the teacher may immediately give a consequence for the same behavior without a warning. This type of inconsistent behavior from the teacher would be deemed unfair. Also, staff must practice equity in discipline. Adherence to written policies and procedures can ensure that all students are disciplined in an equitable manner, regardless of race, gender, or academic and behavioral history.

Emergency Situations and Support

Role of Procedures in Emergency Situations
Procedures are necessary in emergency situations to ensure the safety of everyone affected. In emergency situations, emotions can cloud thinking and judgment. Additionally, people who are not familiar with a particular emergency situation may not know what to do in these instances. Having a procedure in place ensures that the right actions are taken in the event of an emergency, regardless of the emotional state or expertise of those involved. For example, if a person has a health emergency on campus, procedures should be in place for addressing the situation, including calling an ambulance, providing emergency aid, and maintaining the safety and order of the staff and students not immediately involved in the situation. These procedures should be taught to all staff on campus and be available in written form so they are accessible in the event of emergency. Having written procedures in place and abiding by them in the event of an emergency can also serve as legal protection for the school leader and staff.

Key Emergency Support Personnel Inside and Outside of the School
The school leader should identify key emergency support personnel on campus to prepare them for emergencies.
These key staff members should know their roles in each emergency instance and be trained on how to fulfill those roles in the event of an emergency. These staff members may include the school nurse, counselor, police officer or security personnel, administrators or other school leaders, clerks, and others, depending on the nature of the emergency. For example, a different team of personnel may be needed to respond to a health emergency than a natural disaster emergency. Emergency support personnel outside of the school may include key district staff members and personnel at various emergency response organizations, such as the fire department.

Documentation and Communication in Emergency Situations
Emergency preparedness means that the school leader and staff have identified potential types of emergencies and planned the procedures, staff, and resources needed to address each type. Emergencies may include health emergencies, fire, natural disaster, intruders on campus, and many others. For each of these potential emergencies, a written plan of procedures should be created, detailing how everyone on campus should behave in the event of such an emergency. Key personnel with specific roles and responsibilities should be identified in the written plan. Everyone should be trained prior to the emergency to follow the written procedures. For many emergencies, practice drills can be conducted, such as fire drills or school lockdowns. Also, resources should be acquired, stored in designated locations, and inspected periodically. These resources may include printed copies of emergency procedures, fire extinguishers, automatic defibrillators, first aid kits, and other resources.

Welfare of Staff and Students

Promotion of Counseling and Health Referral Systems

Key Staff That Can Promote the Welfare of Staff and Students
The key staff member responsible for promoting the welfare of staff and students is the school leader. The school leader creates a school culture in which students and staff feel safe, as well as structures and systems to provide support and intervention for students and staff in need. The school leader also sets the example for treatment of students and staff, such as displaying understanding, empathy, and compassion. The school leader should also identify other key staff who can promote the welfare of staff and students. Each member of the leadership team, such as assistant principals or deans, should take the lead in promoting the welfare of all and lead by example. The school leader should also enlist the support of counselors, nurses, and others who can be proactive in identifying and responding to the needs of students and staff. Additionally, teachers play a key role in identifying the needs of students and promoting their welfare within the classroom.

Promoting Counseling and Wellness
A leader should promote counseling and wellness to encourage staff and students to take advantage of these supports for their own welfare. A leader can do this by making counseling and wellness programs visible to all. This may mean having signs and displays around the school that promote these programs. Also, the leader can communicate the availability of these resources using common means of communication, such as emails, news bulletins, school public announcements, and announcements in staff meetings. The staff members who lead counseling and wellness programs can be included in other school projects and programs, such as in behavior intervention meetings or academic interventions, so that they are viewed as an integral part of the campus team. A school leader can also consider hosting mental health and wellness fairs for school members and the community to raise awareness about potential health concerns and to promote available services.

Indicators That Staff May Need Counseling and Health Referrals
A leader can watch for several indicators to determine that staff members may need a recommendation to counseling and health services. Teachers and staff who need help may be frequently absent without a reasonable excuse. These absences may be jokingly referred to as 'mental health days' but are often indicators that a staff person is stressed or overwhelmed. Another indicator of a need for counseling and health services are overly emotional responses to everyday stimuli. These responses may include yelling, crying, or bursts of anger. The school leader can also look for changes in staff behavior. For example, if a staff member who is usually outgoing, energetic, and talkative becomes withdrawn and disengaged, this may indicate a need for additional support. Staff who are unable to do their jobs satisfactorily, especially if they have a history of satisfactory performance, may need support from counseling and health services.
The school leader should keep communication open so that staff are comfortable communicating that they need help.

Indicators That Students May Need Counseling and Health Referrals

Indicators to determine that students may need a recommendation to counseling and health services. A student may begin to act out and display negative behaviors in the classroom with other students or with adults on campus. This can be an indicator if the student does not usually display poor behavior at school. Additionally, a student who is usually engaged in classroom activities and with peers but becomes withdrawn and disengaged may also need help. These indicators can also lead to poor academic performance, indicated by falling grades. Students in need of support may also demonstrate emotional responses in school such as angry outbursts, crying, yelling, or even physical altercations with other students. In some instances, a parent may communicate with a staff member that the child is having difficulty at home as well. A school leader should ensure that systems are in place on campus to allow students to express their needs so that they can be referred for services. This may include having walk-in counseling hours or open-door policies with key staff members.

Making Reports to Child Protective Services
Child Protective Services is a service provided by state agencies to protect the welfare of children. This agency investigates allegations of child abuse or neglect and provides services to children should such allegations be proven valid. There will be instances in which the school leader or a school staff member has reason to believe that a child is being neglected or abused. Whenever there is suspicion of abuse or neglect, it is each staff person's responsibility, including the school leader's, to submit a formal report to Child Protective Services for investigation. For example, if a teacher reports to the school leader that one of her students has confided that his mother is hitting him with various objects and shows the teacher bruises, both the teacher and the leader should file a report. There can be legal ramifications for staff members who fail to report suspected child abuse or neglect.

Being Proactive in Promoting the Wellness of Staff and Students
Being proactive in promoting the wellness of staff and students means that the leader is actively looking for ways to maintain the wellness of all before problems arise. This is important because prevention is often more effective and less costly than trying to address a problem after it has already occurred. For example, taking steps to prevent teen suicide is a better course of action than addressing a grieving student body after a teen has committed suicide. Similarly, it is more effective to help an unwell teacher obtain needed help than to lose the teacher for the remainder of the school year due to a health crisis. The school leader should proactively promote wellness and identify potential wellness needs among students and staff so that mental health crises can be prevented or at least detected early in an effort to prevent tragedies that directly affect the student body and staff. Being proactive demonstrates to all that the leader is concerned about the wellness of staff and students and is willing to take the needed steps to address their health concerns.

Helping Staff and Students Deal with Grief on Campus A. times the student body and staff members will experience the loss of a peer or colleague. In these instances, the school leader will need to implement strategies to address the grief that students and staff experience. The first step that the leader must take is to acknowledge the loss. The leader should not operate with a
'business-as-usual' attitude. Many schools have access to grief counselors who can be present on campus to assist students or staff who need assistance in dealing with their emotions. The school leader should also demonstrate understanding and compassion during this time and recognize that grief may cause students or staff to behave out of character, such as missing school, expressing outbursts of emotion like sadness or anger in school, or being disengaged from academic activities. It is important to listen to the needs of the students and staff during this time. The leader may provide opportunities for students and staff to express their feelings or to honor the one who has died.

Preventing Teen Suicide
The school leader can take steps to aid in the prevention of teen suicide or self-harm. Although many factors and influences outside of the school can lead a young person to commit suicide, the school and its staff can serve as a resource and support to students who experience suicidal thoughts. First, the leader should create a school culture in which students feel comfortable turning to teachers and staff for support. When this type of culture is present, a student is more likely to share thoughts of self-harm with a staff member, which can aid in prevention. The school should also have counseling staff and resources available for students who are experiencing emotional issues. Many schools discuss this topic with the student body and provide telephone hotline numbers for support 24 hours a day. Also, if an adult becomes aware that a student is contemplating suicide or self-harm, he or she has a duty to report it to the proper authorities.

Role Social Media Plays in Student Wellness and Mental Health
Social media has a large influence on students' wellness and mental health. Students who engage in social media often experience negative emotions as a result. Some students develop feelings of inadequacy or low self-esteem when they compare themselves to others online. This is the result of unrealistic beauty expectations and exaggerated portrayals of others' lives. Additionally, students may be exposed to cyberbullying via social media. This type of bullying can involve name-calling, threats, shaming, spreading rumors, and other negative behaviors that can negatively impact a student's well-being. Cyberbullying can lead to bullying and other conflict on campus as well. Finally, engaging in social media can be addictive for some youth. They may spend excessive amounts of time on social media or engage in risky behaviors in an attempt to gain social media attention. For example, a student may post provocative pictures of him or herself in an effort to attract attention. This can have negative consequences for the student's mental health and overall wellness.

Leader's Own Physical and Mental Wellness
In addition to ensuring the wellness of students and staff, the school leader should take steps to ensure his or her own physical and mental wellness. A leader cannot fulfill job responsibilities properly if he or she is not well. Also, the school leader should set an example for staff and students by prioritizing personal health needs. This is primarily accomplished by being proactive instead of waiting until a health problem arises to address it. First, the leader should delegate responsibilities and accept assistance whenever possible to keep stress levels low. The leader should also get regular checkups to quickly identify potential health problems. Eating and sleeping properly are also key components of maintaining physical and emotional health. Finally, the school leader should take advantage of the resources and supports that are offered on campus and through the school district. These may include counseling, use of workout facilities, support groups, nurse hotlines, and many other resources designed to support the physical and mental health of staff.

Resources for Promoting Wellness

Utilizing Community Services for Staff and Student Welfare
It is important for a school leader to utilize community services for staff and student welfare because school funds and resources are often insufficient to provide abundant resources for staff and students. Even if a school has sufficient budgetary resources, there is no need to spend funds on resources that may be available as a free community service. Also, utilizing community services may expand the number and type of resources that are available, which means more support and help for members of the school community. Most school services only provide services directly to students, whereas community services often have programs, resources, and support for the entire family, which can be more impactful to students and their families in many instances. Finally, utilizing community services builds partnerships and relationships between the school and the community, which can have long-range benefits for both parties. For example, schools and community organizations can partner in community events, student recruitment, and applications for grant funding.

Identifying Community Resources for Promoting Wellness
A leader can identify community resources for promoting wellness in a variety of ways. Often, these organizations desire to partner with the school and will visit or call the school to inform campus leadership of their services and identify ways that they can serve the school community.
Sometimes school district offices maintain directories of community organizations and programs that support students and their families within the school district. The school leader can also do a basic internet search to identify nearby resources. Local resources include branches of city, county, or state organizations and are easily identified online. Finally, the school leader can make an effort to venture into the community and make connections with the leaders of area organizations to determine how the school and the organizations can collaborate.

Disciplinary Policy

Discipline Policy and Conflict Resolution

Discipline
Discipline is training students to abide by a specific code of behavior. When discipline is present, rules are typically stated and taught, and expectations for behavior are defined in a variety of contexts and situations. In addition to the rules that are outlined as part of the discipline policy, there are consequences associated with failing to abide by the stated rules and expectations for behavior. Many people associate discipline with administering consequences for failing to follow rules. However, the essence of discipline is the practice of training or teaching behavior. In schools, rules are often set by the school district and written in a student code of conduct for district-wide discipline.
Schools may also have campus-wide expectations for behavior as part of their discipline, as well as sets of rules for individual classrooms. When discipline is effective, students are fully aware of behavior expectations and the consequences associated with not meeting those expectations.

Promoting Conflict Resolution
Conflict resolution is the practice of resolving conflicts or disagreements, such as verbal or physical altercations, between students to prevent further disruption. To promote conflict resolution, staff members must be vigilant in identifying potential conflicts among the student body. Early intervention is essential in resolving conflicts effectively. Staff members also want to build relationships with students and create an environment in which students feel comfortable reporting conflicts to adults. Both people experiencing the conflict should feel that there is an adult on campus who is willing and able to help them resolve the conflict. There should be structures or systems in place to practice conflict resolution, which can include identifying mediators, locating neutral spaces for conversations between the conflicted parties, including parents and guardians, and support services to meet students' mental health needs. Additionally, the campus culture should utilize and promote conflict resolution, rather than simply administering consequences. This can be done by promoting conversations between students and adults and among peers regarding various aspects of their school experiences.

Applying Discipline Policy in a Fair and Equitable Manner
The school discipline policy must be applied to students in a fair and equitable manner. Many studies have shown that male students, especially minority males, are disciplined more often and more severely than their peers. Unfair discipline can lead to increased misbehavior from students who receive the discipline at a higher rate than others, as well as by students who witness the inequitable discipline. The student who is disciplined more frequently may believe that he or she will receive consequences regardless of behavior, so he or she may choose to misbehave and earn the consequences. Students who witness this may believe they will not be punished for their behavior, so they can behave however they like. Rules should be enforced consistently. For example, if a school rule states that students should not chew gum, this rule should be enforced at all times and with all students, not just when it is convenient for the teacher or other staff member. Additionally, applying discipline in an unfair or inequitable manner can damage relationships with students and parents and can negatively influence the school culture.

Communicating the School's Discipline Policy to Students, Staff, and Parents
The school's discipline policy should be communicated to students, staff, and parents. Students must understand behavioral expectations if they are to meet them. It cannot be assumed that all students and their families hold the same expectations for behavior. As a result, the school's discipline policy must be clearly communicated. This can be done with a printed handbook for student behavior, as well as through verbal communication. When the discipline policy is not communicated clearly, this can lead to confusion and anger when consequences are administered. Emotional reactions from students and their parents or guardians can be expected when consequences are administered, especially for severe consequences. Ambiguity around rules and consequences makes it difficult to administer discipline and can lead to the nullification of warranted consequences due to ineffective communication of the discipline policy.

Bullying
Bullying occurs when one uses strength or other means of influence to intimidate another person. Bullying can be verbal, social, or physical and involves an imbalance of power. To prevent bullying, a school leader must employ several strategies. First, students and staff must be aware of what bullying is and is not. This will help to identify bullying quickly if it occurs. Also, the leader should create an environment in which bullying is not acceptable or tolerated. This will encourage those who are being bullied and those who observe bullying to report it so that it can be stopped. The school leader and the staff should also model healthy, respectful relationships with one another. The leader should not be a bully to staff, nor should staff bully students, as this would set an inappropriate model for students on campus. Additionally, acts of bullying should be addressed swiftly and effectively. This may include disciplinary consequences or other interventions such as peer mediation, counseling, or other strategies.

Mild and Normal Disciplinary Problems

Common Disciplinary Problems
Many disciplinary issues among students are common and can be prepared for with effective classroom management strategies. One category of common discipline problems is disengagement.
Students who disengage are not usually disruptive of others in the instructional setting but are not receiving instruction. These students may put their heads down and sleep or participate in off-task activities such as drawing, reading, writing, or daydreaming. Another category of discipline problems is disruptive.
These behaviors indicate that the misbehaving student is not participating in instruction and is also preventing others from participating. These behaviors include excessive talking, standing or walking around at inappropriate times, calling out, touching or hitting others, making disruptive noises, and many others. These types of behavior are often addressed by the teacher when they occur and do not require serious disciplinary consequences unless the behaviors are repeated and the student does not respond to redirection.

Using Restorative Justice in Schools
Restorative justice is a practice in which students who have harmed their school community or an individual through their misbehavior are required to repair the harm.
The first step is to facilitate a conversation regarding the offender's behavior. This is usually led by an adult in the school. The offender has the opportunity to provide his or her side of the story and give input on the consequences. Traditional consequences usually include detention, suspension, and expulsion, among others, whereas restorative justice provides an opportunity for a holistic approach to correcting the misbehavior, i.e., 'righting a wrong' or 'making it right' and preventing it from recurring in the future. There are no predefined consequences, as these might vary significantly, based on the individual incident. For example, if a student has a temper tantrum, flips a desk in a classroom, and overturns a supply table, a community of adults and peers may determine that the student must clean the classroom during lunch for a week in addition to offering a public apology to the teacher and classmates.

Classroom Management
Classroom management refers to the strategies that teachers use to maintain order in the classroom and establish an environment conducive to learning. Classroom management is effective in preventing and addressing minor disciplinary problems. A teacher who demonstrates effective classroom management considers student behavior and management in all aspects of the instructional process, including lesson planning, lesson delivery, room arrangement, procedures, and more. For example, a teacher may use diverse instructional practices to engage students and prevent disengagement or off-task behavior during a lesson. A teacher may also design a lesson so that students can get out of their seats and move to different areas of the classroom at various points. Classroom management also involves having clear expectations for student behavior, established procedures for all instructional activities, and strategies for effective redirection of students who misbehave. Teachers with effective classroom management also build rapport with students and utilize parental communication to preserve the learning environment.

Different Discipline Approaches
School discipline approaches range from lax to very stringent. A lax approach does not mean that school discipline does not exist; it means that discipline is often determined on an individual basis, reflective of the circumstances and individuals involved. This may include practices such as teen or peer courts and restorative justice models. Some discipline approaches combine individualized disciplinary strategies with set disciplinary policies. These approaches may offer flexibility in disciplinary options for relatively minor offenses and more defined options for more severe offenses. The most stringent discipline approaches have strict, pre-determined consequences for student misbehaviors. The most common example of this type of discipline approach is a zero-tolerance policy. In zero-tolerance policies, the consequences associated with particular behavioral infractions are administered without regard to the individual offender, context, or other variables within the situation. Many schools implement discipline approaches that fall within the midrange of this continuum, but a school leader should determine the best discipline approach for the campus based on student needs.

Role of Parental Communication in Addressing Discipline Problems
Parental communication is an asset when addressing student discipline problems. It is important that parents are aware of their children's behavior while at school. This awareness, fostered through consistent and effective communication between the school and the parent, can help build a positive relationship and rapport. Additionally, the parent can support the school in disciplinary efforts and vice versa to establish consistency in behavioral expectations of the student. Finally, communication provides parents with the opportunity to intervene in a child's misbehavior before those behaviors escalate to more severe behaviors or have a negative impact on the student's academic progress. Failure to communicate with a parent regarding a child's behavior can cause negative consequences for the school, such as complaints about how the discipline was handled by school administration or contesting of assigned consequences. Parents or guardians should always be part of the disciplinary process.

Severe Disciplinary Problems

Role of Special Education Status in Addressing Disciplinary Problems
When a student who is identified as receiving special education services displays behavioral issues, it is important to take certain steps to meet the child's needs. Some students with this identification already have behavioral plans in place. Teachers and school leaders must abide by these plans, which may include specific strategies for correcting a student's behavior or predetermined disciplinary consequences decided by the special education committee, which may or may not be aligned to the general student code of conduct. If a student who receives special education services commits a severe disciplinary infraction that could warrant consequences such as suspension or expulsion, a special meeting must be held by the special education committee to determine if the behavior was a manifestation of the student's identified disability. If it is concluded by the committee that the behavior is a manifestation of the student's identified disability, that student would likely not be subject to the traditional disciplinary consequences outlined by the student code of conduct. On the other hand, if the committee determines that the student's behavior is not associated with the disability, the student would likely be subject to the outlined disciplinary consequences.

Role of Disciplinary Alternative Education Programs
Suspension and expulsion are consequences for severe student behavioral infractions. Suspensions typically last one to three days, but for some offenses, students are removed from the traditional education setting for longer periods of time. The public school system provides a means of education for all students, even those who have been removed from their traditional school due to extended suspension or expulsion. Students in these situations may receive their education through an alternative education program. In these programs, students may be assigned to attend the program for a certain number of days, usually for no longer than a school year.
School districts may establish alternative education programs within the district or work with a program operating in that region. Additionally, students who commit crimes punishable by law may attend a school operated by the local juvenile justice department. Like other alternative education programs, the assigned duration that a student must attend varies based on the offense, as deemed by the courts.

Role of Law Enforcement in School Discipline
Some student behavioral infractions are not only violations of school codes of conduct, but also of the law. Consequently, law enforcement has the right and responsibility to administer legal consequences in addition to local disciplinary consequences. For example, if students engage in a physical altercation on campus, they are subject to local disciplinary consequences which may include suspension, but they are also subject to the law, which may warrant a citation. Many school districts and school leaders have opted to maintain a police presence on campus at all times. A school district may have its own police department dedicated to its schools. This police presence is established for the safety of everyone on campus, but if students break the law, the police exercise their authority by addressing the infraction. The involvement of law enforcement is discretionary, at times, depending on the offense. Law enforcement is not a replacement for school discipline, but a supplement.

Professional Influence for Systemic Change

Connecting the School Community with Federal, State, and Local Policy, Regulations, and Other Requirements

Participating in Professional Education Organizations and Associations
It is important for school leaders to participate in professional education organizations and associations. Many organizations have been created to support educators in various stages of their career. There are organizations primarily created for teachers in the classroom, even organizations specific to particular content areas. There are also organizations created specifically for school administrators. Additionally, school leaders may consider joining organizations related to the field in which they obtained their degree. These organizations provide training, information, and networking opportunities. Some offer legal help and protection as well. Most organizations charge a fee for membership, and members have access to a website, newsletters, training opportunities, job postings and leads, networking events, and much more. The information provided through these organizations can also help school leaders stay current on trends in education, changing laws and policies, and politics that affect the field of education. Additionally, networking within these professional organizations can provide opportunities for growth, advancement, and partnerships.

Use of Professional Influence to Impact the School
The school leader often has influence in the community due to the position of leadership. This influence comes from the connection to others who are in a position to support the school's vision and goals. Additionally, the size and diversity of a school leader's network and contacts can increase the power of that influence. The school leader's professional influence can be used to bring positive attention and resources to the school. For example, a school leader may know professional athletes, musicians, or actors within the community and can invite them to speak to or mentor the students on campus. Having such people on campus can inspire the youth and encourage them to succeed academically. The school leader can also use his or her influence to secure opportunities for students from businesses and organizations in the community, such as field trips, internships, or other educational opportunities. Finally, the school leader's professional influence can be used to promote social justice within the school and the community. For example, the school leader may advocate for a public library within the community.

Sphere of Influence
A sphere of influence refers to a leader's power to affect others, even without formal authority. School leaders have authority over staff and students. Staff can be reprimanded or terminated and students can be disciplined. Staff and students conform their behavior to the expectations of the leader because of the leader's authority over them. In contrast, the leader does not have authority over parents, community members, district personnel, and other stakeholders. However, the leader has the ability to influence these people through speech and other communication, as well as behavior. For example, a school leader cannot mandate that a neighborhood organization offer childcare services on campus after school because the school leader has no authority over that neighborhood organization. Instead, the school leader could use his or her influence to encourage or persuade the neighborhood organization to provide childcare services in partnership with the school. A school leader must recognize that when operating within the sphere of influence, skills such as understanding, compromise, persuasion, and clear communication are necessary to reach desired outcomes. This skillset differs from the skills used with those under the school leader's authority.

Educating Community Stakeholders About Local Education Processes
The purpose of educating community stakeholders about local education processes is to help them understand the reason for local policies and procedures and to help them engage in the local education processes. Community stakeholders who are uninformed or misinformed on local education processes may mistakenly assign responsibility or culpability to the school and school leader. Stakeholders should be aware of the decision-makers within the school district, the processes for decision-making, and how they can participate in those processes. This can help stakeholders to be effective in enacting change for decisions and processes that they do not agree with. For example, the school's dance program may be eliminated. Stakeholders may mistakenly believe that this was the school leader's decision when, in reality, the school district eliminated funding for these types of programs district-wide. Stakeholders should be educated regarding the budgeting process and how they can participate in the decision-making for district and school budgets.

Educating Community Stakeholders About State and Federal Education
Processes community stakeholders about state and federal education processes is to help them understand the reason for the laws and policies that govern the education system and to help them engage in the state and federal processes.
Many school policies and procedures are developed in response to state and federal laws. When community stakeholders are aware of the laws that impact their children, they are more likely to engage in the processes to effect change. For example, a community may believe that their students should not be subject to standardized testing. Those community members would need to be informed of the accountability laws that require assessment of students. Then the community members would be able to participate in the processes that could affect those laws in the future, such as voting.

Facilitating Discussions That May Lead to Identifying Areas in Need of Improvement

Value of Facilitating Discussions with Students
Students can help the school leader identify areas of the school in need of improvement from the student perspective. This perspective is invaluable when evaluating school programming and school culture. For example, the school leader may have instituted an art program for students based on the perception that students wanted more arts on campus. Students can inform the school leader how well that art program meets their needs. They may explain that the student body was interested in digital arts rather than classical arts, therefore making the school leader's art program ineffective. Students have to abide by the rules and policies that school leaders design and can often provide feedback on how effective those rules and policies are. Students can inform the school leader of aspects of the school that do not enhance school safety, are deemed unfair or inequitable, or are simply ineffective. Students are also helpful in providing solutions for areas of improvement on campus.

Value of Facilitating Discussions with Teachers
Teachers can help the school leader identify areas of the school in need of improvement from their perspective. Teachers are responsible for implementing the school program the leader designs. As a result, they are often aware of needed areas of improvement that the school leader cannot see. When a school leader facilitates discussions on school improvement with teachers, they are in a position to gather information that they may not have discovered otherwise. For example, the teachers may point out a misalignment in the curriculum's scope and sequence and the assessment calendar, which causes the performance data to be skewed. This information can help the leader analyze data that has already been collected and devise a plan for revising the assessment calendar. Additionally, including teachers in this discussion increases buy-in. This process allows them to voice their concerns and to identify areas of the school program that need improvement for them to do their job more easily and effectively.

Value of Facilitating Discussions with Community Stakeholders
Community stakeholders can provide the school leader with the community perspective of school areas in need of improvement. The school is an integral part of the community and plays a significant role in meeting the needs of community families. Community stakeholders can inform the school leader of areas in which the school is not meeting those needs. For example, community members may inform the school leader that school dismissal procedures are inadequate and that the school is creating disruptive traffic congestion in the community at dismissal time. The school leader can work with community members to develop a plan that is appropriate for the school and respectful of the surrounding community. Engaging community stakeholders in discussions relating to the efficacy of the school program also creates buy-in of the school vision and goals, as well as building relationships between the school and the community.

Value of Facilitating Discussions with District Personnel
Feedback from district personnel regarding areas of campus improvement is valuable. District personnel offer a unique perspective because they are able to view the school as it relates to the entire district's curricular program, mission, and goals. As a result, their perspective can help the school leader remain in alignment with district expectations. District personnel can also provide feedback based on how the school compares to other schools in the district. School leaders do not often have the opportunity to visit all the other schools within the district to gather ideas and best practices, but other district personnel can provide this perspective. Additionally, district personnel are often the people responsible for evaluating the school leader's performance. Addressing weak areas identified by district personnel can ensure that the leader is meeting the district's performance

Root Cause Analysis
Conducting a root cause analysis involves identifying the root cause or underlying source of a problem. A root cause analysis begins with identifying the problem, then systematically identifying the source of that problem with the understanding that a sequence of events or chain of causes and effects may have led to the problem's manifestation. Conducting a root cause analysis is valuable because the main source of the problem can be addressed rather than just the symptoms. For example, the school leader may notice that math scores are below expectations. A further analysis of the data may indicate that the majority of the low performing students have their math class in the morning. A further analysis may indicate that a significant number of students arrive late to school every day and are missing the math instruction needed to perform well on the assessments. The school leader may conclude that addressing the tardiness may help to improve math scores. Root cause analysis helps the school leader to address the right problem in order to improve outcomes.

SWOT Analysis
A SWOT analysis is a method of identifying the strengths and weaknesses of an organization in order to develop an improvement plan. SWOT stands for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats. The strengths of an organization are what provide the school with a competitive advantage over other schools. A school may be technology-rich, which is a strength. Weaknesses describe areas of disadvantage relative to other schools. A school may have a poor attendance rate in comparison to other schools. Opportunities are areas the school may be able to use by leveraging strengths to address weaknesses. The school may identify that the technology can be used to provide students with instruction at home when absent or to provide accelerated instruction when they return to school. Threats are aspects of the environment that the school has little or no control over but may negatively affect the school. The school may identify that the closure of a chemical plant has resulted in the layoff of many students' parents. Conducting a SWOT analysis is helpful in identifying areas of potential improvement, even for schools that are already high-performing.

Areas of School Programming That Should Be Evaluated for Weaknesses
All areas of school programming should be evaluated for weaknesses. Academic performance is most often evaluated because this is the basis for school accountability measures. A school leader should examine the alignment of curriculum to assessments, the quality of the instruction that is delivered, and the rigor at which it is delivered. However, other aspects should also be evaluated. These include school safety, school culture, parental and family engagement, and much more. For example, a school leader should determine if school safety procedures are up-to-date and should also assess the performance of students and staff during safety drills. School culture can be evaluated based on student and staff perceptions as well as by the experiences and feedback of visitors on campus. Also, the school leader can identify whether the school is achieving family engagement on campus, if it is in the desired areas, and if it is producing the desired outcomes. There are always aspects of the school program that can be improved, so the school leader should have a mindset of continuous improvement.

Using Data to Identify Areas of Weakness
Data is essential in the identification of weaknesses in the school program. Differences and changes in the data, identifying potential areas of improvement, may be observed.
The school leader may identify disparities in the data between the school and others in the district. For example, the school leader may note that on a district benchmark assessment, his or her school had the lowest overall performance. Based on that data, the leader could develop a plan for improvement. Data may also reveal a disparity in performance on campus from one school year to the next, or between various groups of students. Other data that can be used to identify areas of needed improvement include student attendance data, discipline data, compliance in data reporting, staff performance or evaluation data, and more. All data collected on campus has the potential to indicate needed improvements in the school program. The school leader should analyze the data in comparison to other data as well as changes, trends, and gaps in the data.

Encouraging Stakeholders to Lobby and Use Political
Activism to Bring About Change

Encouraging Stakeholders to Lobby and Use Political Activism to Bring About Change
The school leader has the influence to encourage stakeholders to lobby and use political activism to bring about change, especially in regard to social justice. The primary way that the leader can encourage engagement is by educating the community on present issues. The leader often has several opportunities to speak to community families en masse. These opportunities can be used to educate families about education trends and politics that will ultimately affect their community, school, and families. By promoting awareness, the leader can empower parents and community members to become active. The second way the school leader can encourage engagement is by showing community stakeholders how they can become involved. The school leader can invite community stakeholders to be active in bringing about change by writing letters, sending emails, making phone calls, or engaging with political leaders.

Precautions to Take When Engaging in Political Activities
In the school leader's efforts to advocate for students and for social justice, the school leader must engage carefully. Most school districts have guidelines for how a school leader can represent him or herself in the community while representing the school district. These guidelines usually apply in regard to supporting specific political parties or candidates, persuading others how to vote in elections, and various other activities. A school leader must identify what actions they are allowed or not allowed to take while in the position of leader. Outside of school hours, the leader may have additional freedom to engage in such activities, but must still be aware of how his or her influence and authority are used in such activities. The school leader should consult with the school district or the leadership of their professional organizations regarding the implications of political engagement prior to doing so.

Trends in Education

Current Trends in Education

Technology

One-to-One Technology Model
The one-to-one technology model is the practice of providing a device or access to technology to each student on campus. As technology use has increased in schools, access to technology has been a focal point to aid in student performance and growth. In many instances, school leaders calculate the ratio of computers or devices to students. For example, the school may purchase enough computers to ensure that there is one computer for every 10 students. When there are not enough devices on campus for every student, computer and internet access may be limited due to the need to share technology on campus. This may be done by equipping classrooms with a limited number of computers, making laptop carts available, or creating computer labs, all of which must be shared by teachers and students. With the one-to-one technology model, the ratio of technology to students is one device for each student. This allows maximum access to technology on campus. These devices are usually personal laptop computers or tablets. In some instances, the students are entrusted with the technology and are permitted to take the devices home for technology access outside of school hours.

Bring-Your-Own-Device Technology Model
The bring-your-own-device technology model describes the practice of allowing students to bring their own technology devices to school for use in classroom instruction. Many families provide their children with computers, tablets, and phones that can access the internet. When this model is implemented, students can bring these devices to school and use them to participate in computer-based or web-based activities. The bring-your-own-device model is beneficial because it saves schools from purchasing the number of devices necessary for every student to have access. The downside of this model is that the school is not responsible for the care or repair of students' devices, not all students have a device, and there is often difficulty in designing lessons compatible with various types of technology. For example, there are different specifications for playing videos on tablets, laptops, and phones, which can be challenging to a teacher attempting to incorporate videos into the lesson. Also, this model has limited efficacy in impoverished communities, in which the majority of students do not have access to these devices.

Virtual School Model
The virtual school model is the practice of providing online courses to students, using a web-based platform or other computer-based program rather than physically attending a class. A student has access to instructional content online and participates in activities and tests to assess learning. In some virtual school models, students have virtual access to a teacher. In other models, the computer program is automated and student progress may be self-paced. Virtual school has been used in all grade levels as a supplement to traditional instruction or as a replacement. Virtual school can also be utilized for students who are home schooled. When used as a supplement to traditional classes, students may use virtual school to make up failed courses, participate in tutorials or interventions, or to access courses that are not offered on campus. The virtual school model requires that students have access to a technology device and internet service. Many businesses also develop platforms and coursework for virtual schools. Most commonly, courses focus on the core content areas of reading, math, social studies, and science, but many learning platforms offer electives and tutorial programs.

Blended Learning
Blended learning is the process of incorporating technology use into traditional classroom instruction. In the blended learning model, teachers identify places in the lesson that can be supplemented with technology or in which technology can be used to drive the lesson. In this model, the teacher may use the technology in the lesson, but the focus is on students utilizing technology in the classroom. For example, a teacher may deliver content on a topic and then assess students' understanding with an online assessment tool. In the blended learning model, technology can be used to deliver content, such as accessing information through reading and videos or by creating slideshows or other presentations. Technology can be used to assess student learning as well. Blended learning models are often paired with project-based learning models. This allows students the freedom and opportunity to use the technology with limited guidance by the teacher to meet lesson objectives. In the blended learning model, technology use is flexible, so it may vary by content area or lesson as teachers still implement traditional instructional strategies.

School Discipline

Role of Meditation in Schools
Meditation is the act of engaging in quiet and silent thought or reflection. This practice has been used in schools as a strategy for redirecting poor student behavior. When a student breaks a school rule or disrupts class, rather than discipline with in-school suspension, out-of-school suspension, or other traditional consequences, the student is instructed to meditate. When students are given the opportunity to meditate, they are placed in a quiet environment where they can focus on calming down, breathing, and thinking about appropriate behaviors to display. Schools that have implemented meditation as a discipline strategy have seen a decrease in suspension rates and fewer discipline referrals from teachers. The practice of meditation is thought to alleviate emotional issues such as anxiety, anger, depression, and frustration, which could be sources of student misbehavior.

Challenges of Promoting School Safety
It is a school leader's primary responsibility to keep students safe while at school. This responsibility can be challenging for a variety of reasons. Recent acts of school violence have caused educators and government officials to revisit laws, policies, and procedures relating to school safety. In some schools, metal detectors are used to promote school safety, but some deem that practice to be controversial. A. schools are built or remodeled, school designs include limited entrances and exits to the school building and compartmentalized front office areas that can prevent unauthorized people from gaining entrance into the school. Other strategies include staffing uniformed police officers on campus during school hours, implementing standardized dress, and limiting backpacks and other large bags on campuses. Additionally, many schools practice drills for emergencies, such as having an intruder on campus. Promoting school safety is challenging because even the best preventative measures cannot guarantee that nothing will threaten the safety of students and staff.

Curricular Programming

Accelerated Learning
Accelerated learning is the practice of delivering content to students at an accelerated pace. For example, a traditional high school course that is delivered during an 18-week semester may be condensed into six or nine weeks. The purpose of accelerated learning is to provide students with additional learning opportunities. For example, if a student is already proficient in math, it can be reasoned that he or she should not have to sit through an 18-week course. Accelerated learning is also useful for students who have previously taken a course but were unsuccessful. These accelerated classes may be offered during summer breaks or built into the school's instructional program. Accelerated programs are often facilitated with technology-based programs, which can personalize and deliver content based on a student's needs. For example, a student enrolled in an accelerated course may take a pre-assessment online and then be assigned coursework based on assessment performance. A student would not have to complete coursework in areas of the course in which mastery is demonstrated.

School-Within-a-School Model
A school-within-a-school model describes the creation of a specialized school program to be operated on the same campus as the traditional school program. The students participating in the specialized program are still students of the school, but may have limited or no interaction with the rest of the student body. For example, a high school may implement an engineering-based program on campus to which students must apply and be accepted. Students participating in this program will attend school on campus, but their classes, course pathways, and other activities are separate from the remainder of the student body. A school may have several schools within the school or just one. Each of these schools may be designated with its own budget, programming, and administration. In most models, the schools are still identified as one school for state and federal accountability purposes. However, some schools and school districts have extended the model and created an entirely separate school housed on the same campus. In these instances, the school programs are separate and only share the use of the school facilities.

Project-Based Learning
Project-based learning is the instructional practice of assigning projects to students as a means of driving instruction. In project-based learning, students are presented with a problem that must be solved. They are usually assigned to groups or teams for completion of the project. To solve this problem, students have to learn content, usually from more than one content area, and demonstrate mastery of a variety of objectives and skills. The teacher who has assigned the project delivers certain content to students and often provides access to designated resources. Students are responsible for extending their learning and conducting research, using the available resources and the internet. The project is generally complex and can take as little as a few days to complete, or an entire school semester. With more complex project assignments, teachers expect students to demonstrate mastery of a greater number of learning objectives. Therefore, there may be multiple performance expectations for the project, such as papers, presentations, and more.
Some schools integrate project-based learning into the curriculum, while other schools have designed their entire curriculum around project-based learning.

Flipped Classroom Model
A flipped classroom model describes the instructional practice of changing the delivery of instructional content and the opportunities for guided practice within the lesson cycle. In a traditional classroom, a teacher delivers the content and may provide limited guided practice on an in-class assignment. The student may be assigned extended practice independently within the class or in the form of homework. In a flipped classroom model, the student is provided with the instructional content electronically, typically in the form of a recorded lecture or presentation video to watch outside of the classroom. In the classroom, the time that would have been dedicated to delivering content is used to support the student in guided practice. This allows the students more time and access to the teacher during the aspect of the lesson in which they are likely to need the teacher's guidance the most. This practice is considered a flipped classroom because in essence the lesson is done at home and the homework is done at school. Many schools have incorporated flipped lessons into their curriculum sparingly, while other schools have transformed their entire curricular program using the flipped classroom.

Charter Schools
A charter school is a specialized public school that operates according to a charter with a local or national organization. The charter may dictate how the school operates and whom it serves. Charter schools are publicly funded, which means they have to meet state and/or federal accountability standards. However, unlike traditional public schools, charter schools do not obtain funding from local taxes. Attending a charter school is free to students and their parents, but there may be an application or entrance requirements. Charter schools provide communities with additional options for educating their children. Some charter schools specialize in serving at-risk youth, a particular gender, certain career paths, or other niche areas. Proponents of charter schools view these schools as an additional option for students, especially if the community schools are not meeting their needs. However, opponents of charter schools believe that these schools take funding, enrollment, and support away from neighborhood schools.

Middle Colleges
Middle colleges are alternative high school programs that are operated on community campuses. The purpose of a middle college is to provide an alternative environment for high school students and facilitate independent student learning. Students who attend middle colleges are given freedoms and liberty similar to college students and may even have a shorter school day or flexible school schedule.
The school is operated by school district staff and students take their traditional high school courses, but they are also given the opportunity to take college-level courses taught by community college professors. Middle colleges often appeal to students who do not fit in with the environment or culture at their traditional school or who seek to earn college course credits while still in high school. Some middle colleges are designed and funded as charter schools while others are developed and operated as part of the traditional public-school system.

Personalized Learning
Personalized learning is the instructional strategy of tailoring academic content and instruction to students based on their individual needs. Personalization can be achieved based on a student's learning styles, personality, interests, career goals, and academic progress. Providing personalized learning can be complex, so much is implemented with computer programs. Before personalization can occur, a student must be assessed on content relative to the type of personalization. For example, if learning will be personalized based on a student's learning style, he or she may take a learning style inventory. Based on the inventory results, a personal learning plan will be developed. The purpose of personalized learning is to address the individual needs of the student, with the goal of helping him or her achieve academic growth and success. Instruction may be differentiated based on the content the student receives, how the content is delivered, how the student is expected to engage with the content, the pace of progress through the content, and how students demonstrate mastery of the content. Personalized learning often accompanies technology implementation models such as one-to-one technology.

Flexible School Day
In a traditional school day, students report to school at a certain time in the morning, remain at school for nearly seven hours, and are then dismissed in the afternoon. A flexible school day modifies this traditional schedule to accommodate students and their families. There are many variations of the flexible school day, which may include attending a four-hour block of school at some scheduled time throughout the day, attending school in the evenings, or attending school at unscheduled times and accumulating hours over the course of a school week. A flexible school day is especially beneficial to students who are at risk of dropping out or have dropped out of school in the past. These students may have personal obligations that make it difficult to attend school on a traditional schedule, such as working full-time or caring for a child. Implementing a flexible school day is beneficial to the school and to students because students can attend school in a way that meets their individual needs and the school can help students complete their academic expectations for accountability purposes.

College and Career Readiness

Dual-Credit Enrollment
Dual-credit enrollment is a curricular program designed to give students the opportunity to earn college credits while they are still in high school. The program is called dual-credit because students enroll in high school and college at the same time. To participate, students must meet entry requirements for the local community
college. This usually involves earning a specific score on an exam for math and reading. Once admitted to the college program, students take core courses that earn high school and college credits simultaneously. For example, a student may take a Freshman English 1301 course at the college level, which will also earn credit for the high school English year four requirement. The number of college credits that students may earn depends on the school-college partnership and availability of courses, but many schools offer the opportunity to earn an associate's degree while students are still in high school. This saves students and their families money in college tuition and also increases the likelihood that students will persist in college and earn degrees. These college classes can be taught on the high school campus by a qualified teacher or a visiting professor, or the students may travel to the local community college for part of the school day.

Advance Placement Courses
Advanced placement courses are college-level courses that are taught to high school students. Advanced placement (AP) courses contain the content of college-level courses and are taught with college-level rigor by teachers who meet certain qualifications. These courses are usually core content courses such as reading, math, science, or social studies. Students remain on the high school campus to take these courses and receive high school credit for successful course completion. However, students also have an opportunity to take an exam at the end of each course that can qualify them to earn college credit. If the student achieves an acceptable test score, he or she will earn college credit for that course, which is transferrable to most colleges or universities. Students may participate in a combination of AP and dual-credit courses to increase the number of college credits they can earn while still in high school. This saves students and their families money in college tuition and also increases the likelihood that they will persist in college and earn degrees.

International Baccalaureate Programs A. International
Baccalaureate (IB) program is a rigorous school curricular program that has been implemented in schools across the world. In order to participate in this program and to be recognized as an IB school, schools must meet certain program requirements and be monitored and evaluated regularly. The authorization process can take two to three years. As an IB school, schools receive professional development and participate in the international network of IB schools. Additionally, students who attend IB schools often demonstrate higher levels of academic success when compared to schools without IB programs. This is due to the specialized curriculum offered as well as the higher level of rigor in IB schools. Students also have the opportunity to become more culturally aware and sensitive due to their acquisition of a second language as part of the program and their exposure to other students around the world.

Role of Career Pathways in Schools
Career pathways are specific tracks that students can participate in to prepare them for specific career fields or jobs. These tracks or pathways include coursework that is relevant to a student's chosen field. For example, if a student is interested in a career pathway for law and public office, his or her pathway may include more reading, writing, and social studies courses than students in other career pathways, as well as more elective courses related to the skills necessary to be successful in that career. All school levels can implement career pathways.
In elementary schools, the delineation between the various pathways may not be as defined as in high schools, but it can lay the foundation for future studies. For example, a student in a fine arts career pathway from elementary school to high school would likely have an advantage over students who did not participate in a career pathway but are interested in fine arts due to the general exposure to and participation in fine arts related coursework. Some state accountability systems require high school students to identify career pathways as part of graduation requirements.

Accountability

Student Growth
Student growth has become a focus in school accountability. In years past, student performance has been the sole focus. As a result, educators primarily focused on students who were likely to perform well on high-stakes tests. As a result, students who were not likely to pass these tests were underserved, along with students who would likely pass the test regardless of teacher intervention and support. In contrast, a focus on student growth and accountability for such growth means that educators must serve all students. Even if a student does not pass a state-mandated test, growth in performance must be demonstrated. This growth is often measured against a prediction of how the student is expected to perform, based on assessment data from previous years. To ensure that schools are adequately educating all students, accountability standards incorporate measures of student growth in addition to measuring student performance.

Student Performance
Student performance in school accountability describes how students perform on state-mandated assessments.
A certain percentage of students must pass these tests for a school to be deemed acceptable. This performance is evaluated in each core content area, depending on the accountability system, but most frequently in reading and math.
The performance standards and content areas evaluated can vary based on grade level and can also change with federal or state legislature. A school that performs well in one subject and not in another is still a failing school. Additionally, to ensure that all students are performing well and not just certain groups of students, school performance is evaluated for particular subgroups of students, based on demographics. These demographics may include race or ethnicity, socioeconomic status, special education status, limited English proficiency status, and more.

Current Federal Legislation
The most recent legislation related to public school accountability is the Every Student Succeeds Act
(ESSA), which was enacted in 2015 during President Obama's administration. This legislation replaced the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2002, enacted during President Bush's administration. ESSA provides more flexibility to states by allowing individual states to provide plans for addressing key educational goals such as closing the achievement gap, ensuring and increasing equity in schools, improving the quality of instruction in schools, and improving growth and performance outcomes for all students. However, the basis of the law remains the same as that of NCLB. All students should have full educational opportunity. Consequently, there is a remaining focus on serving low-income students, students with special needs, and other students who have traditionally been marginalized in the public school system.

Consequences for Schools That Do Not Meet Accountability Standards
Schools that do not meet accountability standards may be subject to local, state, or federal sanctions.
For a first-time failure, consequences may not be severe. The school will likely have to provide notice to parents and the community that accountability standards were not met. The school may then have to develop a formal plan that outlines changes to help meet accountability standards the following year. Many school districts have strategies and supports in place for schools that do not meet accountability standards. Additionally, the state and federal government provide resources for these schools. The goal is not to punish school staff but to provide the resources and supports necessary to increase the likelihood of student success. This may include training and professional development, consulting staff, curriculum, and more. However, schools that consistently fail to meet accountability standards may experience more severe consequences. These may include changing or removing staff, changing the school leader, implementing specialized or stringent school programming, or even closing the school.

Decreasing Student Dropout Rates
A school's dropout rate is measured for school accountability. Additionally, dropouts miss their educational opportunity. Consequently, many school leaders are developing creative ways to decrease dropout rates. To encourage students to remain in school, leaders are implementing more engaging curricular programs and featuring career pathways and opportunities to earn college credit. Other strategies include providing mentoring programs, offering a variety of extracurricular activities besides sports, and providing counseling and other mental health services. Also, some schools offer accelerated school programming to potential or recovered dropouts in an effort to help them to graduate more quickly. To encourage dropouts to return to school, schools are providing assistance, support, and resources to families. This type of support often requires partnership with other organizations within the community. School leaders and other school staff often visit homes in the community to persuade students who have dropped out to return to school.