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Events Leading up to the Spanish-American War Spain had controlled Cuba since the fifteenth century. Over the centuries, the Spanish had quashed a variety of revolts. In 1886, slavery ended in Cuba, and another revolt was rising. In the meantime, the US had expressed interest in Cuba, offering Spain $130 million for the island in 1853, during Franklin Pierce's presidency. In 1898, the Cuban revolt was underway. In spite of various factions supporting the Cubans, the US President, William McKinley, refused to recognize the rebellion, preferring negotiation over involvement in war. Then the Maine, a US battleship in Havana Harbor, was blown up, killing 266 crew members. The US declared war two months later, and the war ended with a Spanish surrender in less than four months. Importance of the Panama Canal Initial work began on the Panama Canal in 1881, though the idea had been discussed since the 1500s. The canal greatly reduces the length and time needed to sail from one ocean to the other by connecting the Atlantic to the Pacific through the Isthmus of Panama, which joins South America to North America. Before the canal was built, travelers had to sail around the entire perimeter of South America to reach the West Coast of the US. The French began the work after successfully completing the Suez Canal, which connected the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea. However, due to disease and high expense the work moved slowly and after eight years the company went bankrupt, suspending work. The US purchased the holdings, and the first ship sailed through the canal in 1914. The Panama Canal was constructed as a lock-and-lake canal, with ships lifted on locks to travel from one lake to another over the rugged, mountainous terrain. In order to maintain control of the Canal Zone, the US assisted Panama in its battle for independence from Columbia. Influence of Big Stick Diplomacy on American Foreign Policy in Latin America Theodore Roosevelt's famous quote, 'Speak softly and carry a big stick,' is supposedly of African origins, at least according to Roosevelt. He used this proverb to justify expanded involvement in foreign affairs during his tenure as President. The US military was deployed to protect American interests in Latin America. Roosevelt also worked to maintain an equal or greater influence in Latin America than those held by European interests. A. a result, the US Navy grew larger, and the US generally became more involved in foreign affairs. Roosevelt felt that if any country was left vulnerable to control by Europe, due to economic issues or political instability, the US had not only a right to intervene, but was obligated to do so. This led to US involvement in Cuba, Nicaragua, Haiti and the Dominican Republic over several decades leading into the First and Second World Wars. Taft's Dollar Diplomacy vs. Roosevelt's Diplomatic Theories During William Howard Taft's presidency, Taft instituted 'Dollar Diplomacy.' This approach was America's effort to influence Latin America and East Asia through economic rather than military means. Taft saw past efforts in these areas to be political and warlike, while his efforts focused on peaceful economic goals. His justification of the policy was to protect the Panama Canal, which was vital to US trade interests. In spite of Taft's assurance that Dollar Diplomacy was a peaceful approach, many interventions proved violent. During Latin American revolts, such as those in Nicaragua, the US sent troops to settle the revolutions. Afterwards, bankers moved in to help support the new leaders through loans. Dollar Diplomacy continued until 1913, when Woodrow Wilson was elected President. Wilson's Approach to International Diplomacy Turning away from Taft's 'Dollar Diplomacy,' Wilson instituted a foreign policy he referred to as 'moral diplomacy.' This approach still influences American foreign policy today. Wilson felt that representative government and democracy in all countries would lead to worldwide stability. Democratic governments, he felt, would be less likely to threaten American interests. He also saw the US and Great Britain as the great role models in this area, as well as champions of world peace and self-government. Free trade and international commerce would allow the US to speak out regarding world events. Main elements of Wilson's policies included:
Major Events of World War I World War I occurred from 1914 to 1918 and was fought largely in Europe. Triggered by the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the war rapidly escalated. At the beginning of the conflict, Woodrow Wilson declared the US neutral. Major events influencing US involvement included: Sinking of the Lusitania—the British passenger liner RMS Lusitania was sunk by a German U-boat in 1915. Among the 1,000 civilian victims were over 100 American citizens. Outraged by this act, many Americans began to push for US involvement in the war, using the Lusitania as a rallying cry. German U-boat aggression—Wilson continued to keep the US out of the war, using as his 1916 reelection slogan, 'He kept us out of war.' While he continued to work toward an end of the war, German U-boats began to indiscriminately attack American and Canadian merchant ships carrying supplies to Germany's enemies in Europe. Zimmerman Telegram —the final event that brought the US into World War I was the interception of the Zimmerman Telegram (also known as the Zimmerman Note). In this telegram, Germany proposed forming an alliance with the Mexico if the US entered the war. Efforts in the US During World War I Supporting the War Effort American railroads came under government control in December 1917. The widespread system was consolidated into a single system, with each region assigned a director. This greatly increased the efficiency of the railroad system, allowing the railroads to supply both domestic and military needs. Control returned to private ownership in 1920. In 1918, telegraph, telephone, and cable services also came under Federal control, to be returned to private management the next year. The American Red Cross supported the war effort by knitting clothes for Army and Navy troops. They also helped supply hospital and refugee clothing and surgical dressings. Over eight million people participated in this effort. To generate wartime funds, the US government sold Liberty Bonds. In four issues, they sold nearly $25 billion—more than one fifth of Americans purchased them. After the war, a fifth bond drive was held, but sold 'Victory Liberty Bonds.' Influence of Wilson's Fourteen Points on the Final Peace Treaties that Ended World War I President Woodrow Wilson proposed Fourteen Points as the basis for a peace settlement to end the war. Presented to the US Congress in January 1918, the Fourteen Points Five points outlining general ideals Eight points to resolve immediate problems of political and territorial nature One point proposing an organization of nations (the League of Nations) with the intent of maintaining world peace In November of that same year, Germany agreed to an armistice, assuming the final treaty would be based on the Fourteen Points. However, during the peace conference in Paris 1919, there was much disagreement, leading to a final agreement that punished Germany and the other Central Powers much more than originally intended. Henry Cabot Lodge, who had become the Foreign Relations Committee chairman in 1918, wanted an unconditional surrender from Germany and was concerned about the article in the Treaty of Versailles that gave the League of Nations power to declare war without a vote from the US Congress. A League of Nations was included in the Treaty of Versailles at Wilson's insistence. The Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles, and in the end Wilson refused to concede to Lodge's demands. As a result, the US did not join the League of Nations. Major Changes and Events that Took Place in America During the 1920s The post-war 1920s saw many Americans moving from the farm to the city, with growing prosperity in the US. The Roaring Twenties, or the Jazz Age, was driven largely by growth in the automobile and entertainment industries. Individuals like Charles Lindbergh, the first aviator to make a solo flight cross the Atlantic Ocean, added to the American admiration of individual accomplishment. Telephone lines, distribution of electricity, highways, the radio, and other inventions brought great changes to everyday life. Major Cultural Movements of the 1920s Influenced by African Americans The Harlem Renaissance saw a number of African-American artists settling in Harlem in New York. This community produced a number of well-known artists and writers, including Langston Hughes, Nella Larsen, Zora Neale Hurston, Claude McKay, Countee Cullen and Jean Toomer. The growth of jazz, also largely driven by African Americans, defined the Jazz Age. Its unconventional, improvisational style matched the growing sense of optimism and exploration of the decade. Originating as an offshoot of the blues, jazz began in New Orleans. Some significant jazz musicians were Duke Ellington, Louis Armstrong and Jelly Roll Morton. Big Band and Swing Jazz also developed in the 1920s. Well-known musicians of this movement included Bing Crosby, Frank Sinatra, Count Basie, Benny Goodman, Billie Holiday, Ella Fitzgerald and The Dorsey Brothers. Provisions and Importance of the National Origins Act of 1924 The National Origins Act (Johnson-Reed Act) placed limitations on immigration. The number of immigrants allowed into the US was based on the population of each nationality of immigrants who were living in the country in 1890. Only two percent of each nationality's 1890 population numbers were allowed to immigrate. This led to great disparities between immigrants from various nations, and Asian immigration was not allowed at all. Some of the impetus behind the Johnson-Reed Act came as a result of paranoia following the Russian Revolution. Fear of communist influences in the US led to a general fear of immigrants. Origins of the Red Scare World War I created many jobs, but after the war ended these jobs disappeared, leaving many unemployed. In the wake of these employment changes the International Workers of the World and the Socialist Party, headed by Eugene Debs, became more and more visible. Workers initiated strikes in an attempt to regain the favorable working conditions that had been put into place before the war. Unfortunately, many of these strikes became violent, and the actions were blamed on 'Reds,' or Communists, for trying to spread their views into America. With the recent Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, many Americans feared a similar revolution might occur in the US. The Red Scare ensued, with many individuals jailed for supposedly holding communist, anarchist or socialist beliefs. Growth of Civil Rights for African Americans Marcus Garvey founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL), which became a large and active organization focused on building black nationalism. In 1909, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) came into being, working to defeat Jim Crow laws. The NAACP also helped prevent racial segregation from becoming federal law, fought against lynchings, helped black soldiers in WWI become officers, and helped defend the Scottsboro Boys, who were unjustly accused of rape. Ku Klux Klan In 1866, Confederate Army veterans came together to fight against Reconstruction in the South, forming a group called the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). With white supremacist beliefs, including anti-Semitism, nativism, anti-Catholicism, and overt racism, this organization relied heavily on violence to get its message across. In 1915, they grew again in power, using a film called The Birth of a Nation, by D.W. Griffith, to spread their ideas. In the 1920s, the reach of the KKK spread far into the North and Midwest, and members controlled a number of state governments. Its membership and power began to decline during the Great Depression, but experienced a resurgence later. American Civil Liberties Union The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), founded in 1920, grew from the American Union Against Militarism. The ACLU helped conscientious objectors avoid going to war during WWI, and also helped those being prosecuted under the Espionage Act (1917) and the Sedition Act (1918), many of whom were immigrants. Their major goals were to protect immigrants and other citizens who were threatened with prosecution for their political beliefs, and to support labor unions, which were also under threat by the government during the Red Scare. Goals of the Anti-Defamation League In 1913, the Anti-Defamation League was formed to prevent anti-Semitic behavior and practices. Its actions also worked to prevent all forms of racism, and to prevent individuals from being discriminated against for any reason involving their race. They spoke against the Ku Klux Klan, as well as other racist or anti-Semitic organizations. This organization still works to fight discrimination against all minorities. Roosevelt's New Deal The Great Depression, which began in 1929 with the stock market crash, grew out of several factors that had developed over the previous years including:
Additional factors contributing to the Depression also included the Labor Day Hurricane in the Florida Keys (1935) and the Great Hurricane of 1938 in New England, along with the Dust Bowl in the Great Plains, which destroyed crops and resulted in the displacement of as many as 2.5 million people. Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected president in 1932 with his promise of a 'New Deal' for Americans. His goals were to provide government work programs to provide jobs, wages and relief to numerous workers throughout the beleaguered US. Congress gave Roosevelt almost free rein to produce relief legislation. The goals of this legislation were: Relief—creating jobs for the high numbers of unemployed Recovery—stimulating the economy through the National Recovery Administration Reform—passing legislation to prevent future, similar economic crashes The Roosevelt Administration also passed legislation regarding ecological issues, including the Soil Conservation Service, aimed at preventing another Dust Bowl. Roosevelt's Alphabet Organizations So-called 'alphabet organizations' set up during Roosevelt's administration included: Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)—provided jobs in the forestry service Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA)—increased agricultural income by adjusting both production and prices Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)—organized projects to build dams in the Tennessee River for flood control and production of electricity, resulting in increased productivity for industries in the area, and easier navigation of the Tennessee River Public Works Administration (PWA) and Civil Works Administration (CWA)—provided a multitude of jobs, initiating over 34,000 projects Works Progress Administration (WPA)—helped unemployed persons to secure employment on government work projects or elsewhere Actions Taken During the Roosevelt Administration to Prevent Future Crashes The Roosevelt administration passed several laws and established several institutions to initiate the 'reform' portion of the New Deal, including: Glass-Steagall Act—separated investment from commercial banking Securities Exchange Commission (SEC)—helped regulate Wall Street investment practices, making them less dangerous to the overall economy Wagner Act—provided worker and union rights to improve relations between employees and employers Social Security Act of 1935—provided pensions as well as unemployment insurance Other actions focused on insuring bank deposits and adjusting the value of American currency. Most of these regulatory agencies and government policies and programs still exist today. Major Regulations Regarding Labor After the Great Depression Three major regulations regarding labor that were passed after the Great Depression are: The Wagner Act (1935)—also known as the National Labor Relations Act, it established that unions were legal, protected members of unions, and required collective bargaining. This act was later amended by the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 and the Landrum-Griffin Act of 1959, which further clarified certain elements. Davis-Bacon Act (1931)—provided fair compensation for contractors and subcontractors. Walsh-Healey Act (1936)—established a minimum wage, child labor laws, safety standards, and overtime pay. Accomplishments of the Lyndon B. Johnson Presidency Kennedy's Vice President, Lyndon Johnson, assumed the presidency after Kennedy's assassination. He supported civil rights bills, tax cuts, and other wide-reaching legislation that Kennedy had also supported. Johnson saw America as a 'Great Society,' and enacted legislation to fight disease and poverty, renew urban areas, support education and environmental conservation. Medicare and Medicaid were instituted under his administration. He continued Kennedy's support of space exploration and he is also known, although less positively, for his handling of the Vietnam War. Factors that Led to the Growth of the Civil Rights Movement In the 1950s, post-war America was experiencing a rapid growth in prosperity. However, African-Americans found themselves left behind. Following the lead of Mahatma Gandhi, who led similar class struggles in India, African-Americans began to demand equal rights. Major figures in this struggle included: Rosa Parks—often called the 'mother of the Civil Rights Movement,' her refusal to give up her seat on the bus to a white man served as a seed from which the movement grew. Martin Luther King, Jr.—the best-known leader of the movement, King drew on Gandhi's beliefs and encouraged non-violent opposition. He led a march on Washington in 1963, received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964, and was assassinated in 1968. Malcolm X—espousing less peaceful means of change, Malcolm X became a Black Muslim, and supported black nationalism. Impact of Stokely Carmichael, Adam Clayton Powell, and Jesse Jackson on the Civil Rights Movement Stokely Carmichael—Carmichael originated the term 'Black Power' and served as head of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. He believed in black pride and black culture, and felt separate political and social institutions should be developed for blacks. Adam Clayton Powell—chairman of the Coordinating Committee for Employment, he led rent strikes and other actions, as well as a bus boycott, to increase the hiring of blacks. Jesse Jackson—Jackson was selected to head the Chicago Operation Breadbasket in 1966, and went on to organize boycotts and other actions. He also had an unsuccessful run for President. Events of the Civil Rights Movement Three major events of the Civil Rights Movement are: Montgomery Bus Boycott—in 1955, Rosa Parks refused to give her seat on the bus to a white man. As a result, she was tried and convicted of disorderly conduct and of violating local ordinances. A 381-day bus boycott ensued, protesting segregation on public buses. Desegregation of Little Rock—in 1957, after the Supreme Court decision on Brown v. Board of Education, which declared 'separate but equal' unconstitutional, the Arkansas school board voted to desegregate their schools. Even though Arkansas was considered progressive, its governor brought in the Arkansas National Guard to prevent nine black students from entering Central High School in Little Rock. President Eisenhower responded by federalizing the National Guard and ordering them to stand down. Birmingham Campaign—protestors organized a variety of actions such as sit-ins and an organized march to launch a voting campaign. When the City of Birmingham declared the protests illegal, the protestors, including Martin Luther King, Jr., persisted and were arrested and jailed. Pieces of Legislation Passed as a Result of the Civil Rights Movement Three major pieces of legislation passed as a result of the Civil Rights movement are: Brown v. Board of Education (1954)—the Supreme Court declared that 'separate but equal' accommodations and services were unconstitutional. Civil Rights Act of 1964—this declared discrimination illegal in employment, education, or public accommodation. Voting Rights Act of 1965—this act ended various activities practiced, mostly in the South, to bar blacks from exercising their voting rights. These included poll taxes and literacy tests. US Perspective on the Progression of the Vietnam War After World War II, the US pledged, as part of its foreign policy, to come to the assistance of any country threatened by communism. When Vietnam was divided into a communist North and democratic South, much like Korea before it, the eventual attempts by the North to unify the country under Communist rule led to intervention by the US. On the home front, the Vietnam War became more and more unpopular politically, with Americans growing increasingly discontent with the inability of the US to achieve the goals it had set for the Asian country. When President Richard Nixon took office in 1969, his escalation of the war led to protests at Kent State in Ohio, during which several students were killed by National Guard troops. Protests continued, eventually resulting in the end of the compulsory draft in 1973. In that same year, the US departed Vietnam. In 1975, the south surrendered, and Vietnam became a unified country under communist rule. Effects of US Cold War Foreign Policy Acts on the International Relationships The following are US Cold War foreign policy acts and how they affected international relationships, especially between the US and the Soviet Union: Marshall Plan—this sent aid to war-torn Europe after WWII, largely focusing on preventing the spread of communism. Containment Policy—proposed by George F. Kennan, the containment policy focused on containing the spread of Soviet communism. Truman Doctrine—Harry S. Truman stated that the US would provide both economic and military support to any country threatened by Soviet takeover. National Security Act—passed in 1947, this act reorganized the government's military departments into the Department of Defense, as well as creating the Central Intelligence Agency and the National Security Council. The combination of these acts led to the Cold War, with Soviet communists attempting to spread their influence and the US and other countries trying to contain or stop this spread. NATO, Warsaw Pact, and the the Berlin Wall NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, came into being in 1949. It essentially amounted to an agreement among the US and Western European countries that an attack on any one of these countries was to be considered an attack against the entire group. Under the influence of the Soviet Union, the Eastern European countries of the USSR, Bulgaria, East Germany, Poland, Romania, Albania, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia responded with the Warsaw Pact, which created a similar agreement among those nations. In 1961, a wall was built to separate communist East Berlin from democratic West Berlin. This was a literal representation of the 'Iron Curtain' that separated the democratic and communist countries through the world. Effect of the Arms Race on Post WW II International Relations After World War II, major nations, particularly the US and USSR, rushed to develop highly advanced weapons systems such as the atomic bomb and later the hydrogen bomb. These countries seemed determined to outpace each other with the development of numerous, deadly weapons. These weapons were expensive and extremely dangerous, and it is possible that the war between US and Soviet interests remained 'cold' due to the fear that one side or the other would use these powerful weapons. End of the Cold War and the Dissolution of the Soviet Union In the late 1980s, Mikhail Gorbachev led the Soviet Union. He introduced a series of reform programs. Ronald Reagan famously urged Gorbachev to tear down the Berlin Wall as a gesture of growing freedom in the Eastern Bloc, and in 1989 it was demolished, ending the separation of East and West Germany. The Soviet Union relinquished its power over the various republics in Eastern Europe, and they became independent nations with their own individual governments. In 1991, the USSR was dissolved and the Cold War also came to an end. Technological Advances that Occurred Throughout the 1900s Numerous technological advances throughout the 1900s led to more effective treatment of diseases, more efficient communication and transportation, and new means of generating power. Advances in medicine increased the human lifespan in developed countries, and near-instantaneous communication opened up a myriad of possibilities. Some of these advances include:
US Policy Toward Immigrants After World War II Prior to WWII, the US had been limiting immigration for several decades. After WWII, policy shifted slightly to accommodate political refugees from Europe and elsewhere. So many people were displaced by the war that in 1946, the UN formed the International Refugee Organization to deal with the problem. In 1948, the US Congress passed the Displaced Persons Act, which allowed over 400,000 European refugees to enter the US, most of them concentration camp survivors and refugees from Eastern Europe. In 1952, the United States Escapee Program (USEP) increased the quotas, allowing refugees from communist Europe to enter the US, as did the Refugee Relief Act, passed in 1953. At the same time, however, the Internal Security Act of 1950 allowed deportation of declared communists, and Asians were subjected to a quota based on race, rather than country of origin. Later changes included: Migration and Refugee Assistance Act (1962)—provided aid for refugees in need Immigration and Nationality Act (1965)—ended quotas based on nation of origin Immigration Reform and Control Act (1986)—prohibited the hiring of illegal immigrants, but also granted amnesty to about three million illegals already in the country Policies and Legislation Enacted Expanding Minority Rights Several major acts have been passed, particularly since WWII, to protect the rights of minorities in America. These include: Civil Rights Act (1964) Voting Rights Act (1965) Age Discrimination Act (1967) Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) Other important movements for civil rights included a prisoner's rights movement, movements for immigrant rights, and the women's rights movement. The National Organization for Women (NOW) was established in 1966 and worked to pass the Equal Rights Amendment. The amendment was passed, but not enough states ratified it for it to become part of the US Constitution. Interventionist and Isolationist Approaches in World War II When war broke out in Europe in 1939, President Roosevelt stated that the US would remain neutral. However, his overall approach was considered 'interventionist,' as he was willing to provide aid to the Allies without actually entering the conflict. Thus the US supplied a wide variety of war materials to the Allied nations in the early years of the war. Isolationists believed the US should not provide any aid to the Allies, including supplies. They felt Roosevelt, by assisting the Allies, was leading the US into a war for which it was not prepared. Led by Charles Lindbergh, the Isolationists believed that any involvement in the European conflict endangered the US by weakening its national defense. Sequence of Events that Led the US to Declare War and Enter World War II In 1937, Japan invaded China, prompting the US to eventually halt exports to Japan. Roosevelt also did not allow Japanese interests to withdraw money held in US banks. In 1941, General Tojo rose to power as the Japanese prime minister. Recognizing America's ability to bring a halt to Japan's expansion, he authorized the bombing of Pearl Harbor on December 7. The US responded by declaring war on Japan. Partially because of the Tripartite Pact among the Axis Powers, Germany and Italy then declared war on the US, later followed by Bulgaria, Hungary, and other Axis nations. Occurrences of World War II that Led to the Surrender of Germany In 1941, Hitler violated the non-aggression pact he had signed with Stalin two years earlier by invading the USSR. Stalin then joined the Allies. Stalin, Roosevelt and Winston Churchill planned to defeat Germany first, then Japan, bringing the war to an end. In 1942-1943, the Allies drove Axis forces out of Africa. In addition, the Germans were soundly defeated at Stalingrad. The Italian Campaign involved Allied operations in Italy between July 1943 and May 1945, including Italy's liberation. On June 6, 1944, known as D-Day, the Allies invaded France at Normandy. Soviet troops moved on the eastern front at the same time, driving German forces back. B. April 25, 1945, Berlin was surrounded by Soviet troops. On May 7, Germany surrendered. Major Events of World War II the Led to the Surrender of Japan War continued with Japan after Germany's surrender. Japanese forces had taken a large portion of Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific, all the way to the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. General Doolittle bombed several Japanese cities while American troops scored a victory at Midway. Additional fighting in the Battle of the Coral Sea further weakened Japan's position. As a final blow, the US dropped two atomic bombs on Japan, one on Hiroshima and the other on Nagasaki. This was the first time atomic bombs had been used in warfare, and the devastation was horrific and demoralizing. Japan surrendered on September 2, 1945, which became V-J Day in the US. Significance of the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, the Tuskegee Airmen, and the Navajo Code Talkers during World War II The 442nd Regimental Combat Team consisted of Japanese-Americans fighting in Europe for the US. The most highly decorated unit per member in US history, they suffered a 93% casualty rate during the war. The Tuskegee Airmen were African-American aviators, the first black Americans allowed to fly for the military. In spite of being ineligible to become official navy pilots, they flew over 15,000 missions and were highly decorated. The Navajo Code Talkers were native Navajo who used their traditional language to transmit information among Allied forces. Because Navajo is a language and not simply a code, the Axis powers were never able to translate it. Use of Navajo Code Talkers to transmit information was instrumental in the taking of Iwo Jima and other major victories of the war. Circumstances and Opportunities for Women During World War II Women served widely in the military during WWII, working in numerous positions, including the Flight Nurses Corps. Women also moved into the workforce while men were overseas, leading to over 19 million women in the US workforce by 1944. Rosie the Riveter stood as a symbol of these women and a means of recruiting others to take needed positions. Women, as well as their families left behind during wartime, also grew Victory Gardens to help provide food. Importance of the Atomic Bomb During World War II The atomic bomb, developed during WWII, was the most powerful bomb ever invented. A single bomb, carried by a single plane, held enough power to destroy an entire city. This devastating effect was demonstrated with the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 in what later became a controversial move, but ended the war. The bombings resulted in as many as 150,000 immediate deaths and many more as time passed after the bombings, mostly due to radiation poisoning. Whatever the arguments against the use of 'The Bomb,' the post WWII era saw many countries develop similar weapons to match the newly expanded military power of the US. The impact of those developments and use of nuclear weapons continues to haunt international relations today. Importance of the Yalta Conference and the Potsdam Conference In February 1945, Joseph Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met in Yalta to discuss the post-war treatment of the Axis nations, particularly Germany. Though Germany had not yet surrendered, its defeat was imminent. After Germany's official surrender, Joseph Stalin, Harry Truman (Roosevelt's successor), and Clement Attlee (replacing Churchill partway through the conference) met to formalize those plans. This meeting was called the Potsdam Conference. Basic provisions of these agreements included:
The USSR joining the United Nations, established in 1945 Establishment of the United Nations Security Council, consisting of the US, the UK, the USSR, China and France Agreements Made with Post-War Japan General Douglas MacArthur led the American military occupation of Japan after the country surrendered. The goals of the US occupation included removing Japan's military and making the country a democracy. A 1947 constitution removed power from the emperor and gave it to the people, as well as granting voting rights to women. Japan was no longer allowed to declare war, and a group of 28 government officials were tried for war crimes. In 1951, the US finally signed a peace treaty with Japan. This treaty allowed Japan to rearm itself for purposes of self-defense, but stripped the country of the empire it had built overseas. US Treatment of Immigrants During and After World War II In 1940, the US passed the Alien Registration Act, which required all aliens older than fourteen to be fingerprinted and registered. They were also required to report changes of address within five days. Tension between whites and Japanese immigrants in California, which had been building since the beginning of the century, came to a head with the bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941. Believing that even those Japanese living in the US were likely to be loyal to their native country, the president ordered numerous Japanese to be arrested on suspicion of subversive action and isolated in exclusion zones known as War Relocation Camps. Approximately 120,000 Japanese-Americans, two-thirds of them US citizens, were sent to these camps during the war. General State of the US After World War II Following WWII, the US became the strongest political power in the world, becoming a major player in world affairs and foreign policies. The US determined to stop the spread of communism, having named itself the 'arsenal of democracy' during the war. In addition, America emerged with a greater sense of itself as a single, integrated nation, with many regional and economic differences diminished. The government worked for greater equality and the growth of communications increased contact among different areas of the country. Both the aftermath of the Great Depression and the necessities of WWII had given the government greater control over various institutions as well as the economy. This also meant that the American government took on greater responsibility for the well-being of its citizens, both in the domestic arena, such as providing basic needs, and in protecting them from foreign threats. This increased role of providing basic necessities for all Americans has been criticized by some as 'the welfare state.' Accomplishments of Harry S. Truman Harry S. Truman took over the presidency from Franklin D. Roosevelt near the end of WWII. He made the final decision to drop atomic bombs on Japan and played a major role in the final decisions regarding treatment of post-war Germany. On the domestic front, Truman initiated a 21-point plan known as the Fair Deal. This plan expanded Social Security, provided public housing, and made the Fair Employment Practice Committee permanent. Truman helped support Greece and Turkey (which were under threat from the USSR), supported South Korea against communist North Korea, and helped with recovery in Western Europe. He also participated in the formation of NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Events and Importance of the Korean War The Korean War began in 1950 and ended in 1953. For the first time in history, a world organization—the United Nations—played a military role in a war. North Korea sent communist troops into South Korea, seeking to bring the entire country under communist control. The UN sent out a call to member nations, asking them to support South Korea. Truman sent troops, as did many other UN member nations. The war ended three years later with a truce rather than a peace treaty, and Korea remains divided at the 38th parallel north, with communist rule remaining in the North and a democratic government ruling the South. Accomplishments of Dwight D. Eisenhower Eisenhower carried out a middle-of-the-road foreign policy and brought the US several steps forward in equal rights. He worked to minimize tensions during the Cold War, and negotiated a peace treaty with Russia after the death of Stalin. He enforced desegregation by sending troops to Little Rock Central High School in Arkansas, as well as ordering the desegregation of the military. Organizations formed during his administration included the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Presidency of John F. Kennedy Although his term was cut short by his assassination, JFK instituted economic programs that led to a period of continuous expansion in the US unmatched since before WWII. He formed the Alliance for Progress and the Peace Corps, organizations intended to help developing nations. He also oversaw the passage of new civil rights legislation, and drafted plans to attack poverty and its causes, along with support of the arts. Kennedy's presidency ended when he was assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald in 1963. Events of the Cuban Missile Crisis The Cuban Missile Crisis occurred in 1962, during John F. Kennedy's presidency. Russian Premier Nikita Khrushchev decided to place nuclear missiles in Cuba to protect the island from invasion by the US. A. American U-2 plane flying over the island photographed the missile bases as they were being built. Tensions rose, with the US concerned about nuclear missiles so close to its shores, and the USSR concerned about American missiles that had been placed in Turkey. Eventually, the missile sites were removed, and a US naval blockade turned back Soviet ships carrying missiles to Cuba. During negotiations, the US agreed to remove their missiles from Turkey and agreed to sell surplus wheat to the USSR. A telephone hotline between Moscow and Washington was set up to allow instant communication between the two heads of state to prevent similar incidents in the future. Events of the Richard Nixon Presidency Richard Nixon is best known for the Watergate scandal during his presidency, but other important events marked his tenure as president, including:
Events of the Gerald Ford Presidency Gerald Ford was appointed to the vice presidency after Nixon's vice president Spiro Agnew resigned in 1973 under charges of tax evasion. With Nixon's resignation, Ford became president. Ford's presidency saw negotiations with Russia to limit nuclear arms, as well as struggles to deal with inflation, economic downturn, and energy shortages. Ford's policies sought to reduce governmental control of various businesses and reduce the role of government overall. He also worked to prevent escalation of conflicts in the Middle East. Events of the Jimmy Carter Presidency Jimmy Carter was elected as president in 1976. Faced with a budget deficit, high unemployment, and continued inflation, Carter also dealt with numerous matters of international diplomacy including: Torrijos-Carter Treaties—the US gave control of the Panama Canal to Panama. Camp David Accords—negotiations between Anwar el-Sadat, the president of Egypt, and Menachem Begin, the Israeli Prime Minister, led to a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel. Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT)—these led to agreements and treaties between the US and the Soviet Union. Iran Hostage Crisis—after the Shah of Iran was deposed, an Islamic cleric, Ayatollah Khomeini, came to power. The shah came to the US for medical treatment and Iran demanded his return so he could stand trial. In retaliation, a group of Iranian students stormed the US Embassy in Iran. Fifty-two American hostages were held for 444 days. Jimmy Carter was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2002. Events of the Ronald Reagan Presidency Ronald Reagan, at 69, became the oldest American president. The two terms of his administration included notable events such as:
Events of the George H. W. Bush Presidency Reagan's presidency was followed by a term under his former Vice President, George H. W. Bush. Bush's run for president included the famous 'thousand points of light' speech, which was instrumental in increasing his standing in the election polls.
During Bush's presidency, numerous international events took place:
Events of the William Clinton Presidency William Jefferson 'Bill' Clinton was the second president in US history to be impeached, but he was not convicted, and maintained high approval ratings in spite of the impeachment. Major events during his presidency included:
Events of the George W. Bush Presidency George W. Bush, son of George Herbert Walker Bush, became president after Clinton. Major events during his presidency included:
Events of the Barack Obama Presidency Barack Obama, a first-term senator from Illinois, became the first African-American president. Major events included:
Election of Donald Trump to the Presidency Donald Trump, a billionaire real estate tycoon with no prior political experience, was elected to the presidency in a surprise victory over former First Lady and Secretary of State (under Obama) Hillary Clinton amidst a groundswell of populist sentiment. His platform focused on increasing immigration enforcement to curb illegal immigration, restricting foreign trade to improve the dwindling American manufacturing industry, and repealing the Affordable Care Act passed during the prior administration.
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