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Political Science and Its Ties to Other Major Disciplines Political science focuses on studying different governments and how they compare to each other, general political theory, ways political theory is put into action, how nations and governments interact with each other, and a general study of governmental structure and function. Other elements of political science include the study of elections, governmental administration at various levels, development and action of political parties, and how values such as freedom, power, justice and equality are expressed in different political cultures. Political science also encompasses elements of other disciplines, including:
General Political Theory Based on general political theory, the four major purposes of any given government are: Ensuring national security—the government protects against international, domestic and terrorist attacks and also ensures ongoing security through negotiating and establishing relationships with other governments. Providing public services—the government should 'promote the general welfare,' as stated in the Preamble to the US Constitution, by providing whatever is needed to its citizens. Ensuring social order—the government supplies means of settling conflicts among citizens as well as making laws to govern the nation, state, or city. Making decisions regarding the economy—laws help form the economic policy of the country, regarding both domestic and international trade and related issues. The government also has the ability to distribute goods and wealth to some extent among its citizens. Main Theories Regarding the Origin of the State There are four main theories regarding the origin of the state: Evolutionary—the state evolved from the family, with the head of state the equivalent of the family's patriarch or matriarch. Force—one person or group of people brought everyone in an area under their control, forming the first government. Divine Right—certain people were chosen by the prevailing deity to be the rulers of the nation, which is itself created by the deity or deities. Social Contract—there is no natural order. The people allow themselves to be governed to maintain social order, while the state in turn promises to protect the people they govern. If the government fails to protect its people, the people have the right to seek new leaders. Influences of Philosophers on Political Study Ancient Greek philosophers Aristotle and Plato believed political science would lead to order in political matters, and that this scientifically organized order would create stable, just societies. Thomas Aquinas adapted the ideas of Aristotle to a Christian perspective. His ideas stated that individuals should have certain rights, but also certain duties, and that these rights and duties should determine the type and extent of government rule. In stating that laws should limit the role of government, he laid the groundwork for ideas that would eventually become modern constitutionalism. Niccolò Machiavelli, author of The Prince, was a proponent of politics based on power. He is often considered the founder of modern political science. Thomas Hobbes, author of Leviathan (1651), believed that individual's lives were focused solely on a quest for power, and that the state must work to control this urge. Hobbes felt that people were completely unable to live harmoniously without the intervention of a powerful, undivided government. Contributions of John Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau to Political Science John Locke published Two Treatises of Government in 1689. This work argued against the ideas of Thomas Hobbes. He put forth the theory of tabula rasa—that people are born with minds like blank slates. Individual minds are molded by experience, not innate knowledge or intuition. He also believed that all men should be independent and equal. Many of Locke's ideas found their way into the Constitution of the United States. The two French philosophers, Montesquieu and Rousseau, heavily influenced the French Revolution (1789-1799). They believed government policies and ideas should change to alleviate existing problems, an idea referred to as 'liberalism.' Rousseau in particular directly influenced the Revolution with writings such as The Social Contract (1762) and Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789). Other ideas Rousseau and Montesquieu espoused included:
Political Ideologies of David Hume, Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, and Friedrich Hegel David Hume and Jeremy Bentham believed politics should have as its main goal maintaining 'the greatest happiness for the greatest number.' Hume also believed in empiricism, or that ideas should not be believed until the proof has been observed. He was a natural skeptic and always sought out the truth of matters rather than believing what he was told. John Stuart Mill, a British philosopher as well as an economist, believed in progressive policies such as women's suffrage, emancipation, and the development of labor unions and farming cooperatives. Johann Fichte and Georg Hegel, German philosophers in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, supported a form of liberalism grounded largely in socialism and a sense of nationalism. Main Political Orientations The four main political orientations are: Liberal—liberals believe that government should work to increase equality, even at the expense of some freedoms. Government should assist those in need. Focus on enforced social justice and free basic services for everyone. Conservative—a conservative believes that government should be limited in most cases. The government should allow its citizens to help one another and solve their own problems rather than enforcing solutions. Business should not be overregulated, allowing a free market. Moderate—this ideology incorporates some liberal and some conservative values, generally falling somewhere between in overall belief. Libertarian—libertarians believe that the government's role should be limited to protecting the life and liberty of citizens. Government should not be involved in any citizen's life unless that citizen is encroaching upon the rights of another. Major Principles of Government as Outlined in the United States Constitution The six major principles of government as outlined in the United States Constitution are: Federalism—the power of the government does not belong entirely to the national government, but is divided between federal and state governments. Popular sovereignty—the government is determined by the people, and gains its authority and power from the people. Separation of powers—the government is divided into three branches, executive, legislative, and judicial, with each branch having its own set of powers. Judicial review—courts at all levels of government can declare laws invalid if they contradict the constitutions of individual states, or the US Constitution, with the Supreme Court serving as the final judicial authority on decisions of this kind. Checks and balances—no single branch can act without input from another, and each branch has the power to 'check' any other, as well as balance other branches' powers. Limited government—governmental powers are limited and certain individual rights are defined as inviolable by the government. Types of Powers Delegated to the National Government by the US Constitution The structure of the US government divides power between national and state governments. Powers delegated to the federal government by the Constitution are: Expressed powers—powers directly defined in the Constitution, including power to declare war, regulate commerce, make money, and collect taxes Implied powers—powers the national government must have in order to carry out the expressed powers Inherent powers—powers inherent to any government, not expressly defined in the Constitution Some of these powers, such as collection and levying of taxes, are also granted to the individual state governments. Primary Positions of Federalism and Development Through the Years in the US The way federalism should be practiced has been the subject of debate since writing of the Constitution. There were—and still are—two main factions regarding this issue: States' rights—those favoring the states' rights position feel that the state governments should take the lead in performing local actions to manage various problems. Nationalist—those favoring a nationalist position feel the national government should take the lead to deal with those same matters. The flexibility of the Constitution has allowed the US government to shift and adapt as the needs of the country have changed. Power has often shifted from the state governments to the national government and back again, and both levels of government have developed various ways to influence each other. Effects of Federalism on Policy-Making and the Balance of Politics in the US Federalism has three major effects on public policy in the US:
Federalism also influences the political balance of power in the US by: making it difficult, if not impossible, for a single political party to seize total power ensuring that individuals can participate in the political system at various levels making it possible for individuals working within the system to be able to affect policy at some level, whether local or more widespread Three Branches of the US Federal Government The following are the three branches of the US Federal government and the individuals that belong to each branch: Legislative Branch—this consists of the two Houses of Congress: the House of Representatives and the Senate. All members of the Legislative Branch are elected officials. Executive Branch—this branch is made up of the President, Vice President, presidential advisors, and other various cabinet members. Advisors and cabinet are appointed by the President, but must be approved by Congress. Judicial Branch—the federal court system, headed by the Supreme Court. Major Responsibilities of the Three Branches of the Federal Government The three branches of the Federal government each have specific roles and responsibilities: The Legislative Branch is largely concerned with law-making. All laws must be approved by Congress before they go into effect. They are also responsible for regulating money and trade, approving presidential appointments, and establishing organizations like the postal service and federal courts. Congress can also propose amendments to the Constitution, and can impeach, or bring charges against, the President. Only Congress can declare war. The Executive Branch carries out laws, treaties, and war declarations enacted by Congress. The President can also veto bills approved by Congress, and serves as commander-in-chief of the US military. The president appoints cabinet members, ambassadors to foreign countries, and federal judges. The Judicial Branch makes decisions on challenges as to whether laws passed by Congress meet the requirements of the US Constitution. The Supreme Court may also choose to review decisions made by lower courts to determine their constitutionality. US Citizenship Qualifications of a US citizen How Citizenship May Be Lost Anyone born in the US, born abroad to a US citizen, or who has gone through a process of naturalization is considered a citizen of the United States. It is possible to lose US citizenship as a result of conviction of certain crimes such as treason. Citizenship may also be lost if a citizen pledges an oath to another country or serves in the military of a country engaged in hostilities with the US. A US citizen can also choose to hold dual citizenship, work as an expatriate in another country without losing US citizenship, or even to renounce citizenship if he or she so chooses. Rights, Duties, and Responsibilities Granted to or Expected from Citizens Citizens are granted certain rights under the US government. The most important of these are defined in the Bill of Rights, and include freedom of speech, religion, assembly, and a variety of other rights the government is not allowed to remove. A US citizen also has a number of duties:
Responsibilities of a US citizen include:
Bill of Rights Importance of the Bill of Rights The first ten amendments of the US Constitution are known as the Bill of Rights. These amendments prevent the government from infringing upon certain freedoms that the founding fathers felt were natural rights that already belonged to all people. These rights included freedom of speech, freedom of religion, the right to bear arms, and freedom of assembly. Many of the rights were formulated in direct response to the way the colonists felt they had been mistreated by the British government. Rights Granted in the Bill of Rights The first ten amendments were passed by Congress in 1789. Three-fourths of the existing thirteen states had ratified them by December of 1791, making them official additions to the Constitution. The rights granted in the Bill of Rights are: First Amendment—freedom of religion, speech, freedom of the press, and the right to assemble and to petition the government Second Amendment—the right to bear arms Third Amendment—Congress cannot force individuals to house troops Fourth Amendment—protection from unreasonable search and seizure Fifth Amendment—no individual is required to testify against himself, and no individual may be tried twice for the same crime Sixth Amendment—right to criminal trial by jury, right to legal counsel Seventh Amendment—right to civil trial by jury Eighth Amendment—protection from excessive bail or cruel and unusual punishment Ninth Amendment—prevents rights not explicitly named in the Constitution from being taken away because they are not named Tenth Amendment—any rights not directly delegated to the national government, or not directly prohibited by the government from the states, belong to the states or to the people Situations Where the Government Restricts or Regulates First Amendment Freedoms In some cases, the government restricts certain elements of First Amendment rights. Some examples include: Freedom of religion—when a religion espouses illegal activities, the government often restricts these forms of religious expression. Examples include polygamy, animal sacrifice, and use of illicit drugs or illegal substances. Freedom of speech—this can be restricted if exercise of free speech endangers other people. Freedom of the press—laws prevent the press from publishing falsehoods. In emergency situations such as wartime, stricter restrictions are sometimes placed on these rights, especially rights to free speech and assembly, and freedom of the press, in order to protect national security. Constitution's Address of the Rights of Those Accused of Crimes The US Constitution makes allowances for the rights of criminals, or anyone who has transgressed established laws. There must be laws to protect citizens from criminals, but those accused of crimes must also be protected and their basic rights as individuals preserved. In addition, the Constitution protects individuals from the power of authorities to prevent police forces and other enforcement organizations from becoming oppressive. The fourth, fifth, sixth and eighth amendments specifically address these rights. Supreme Court's Provision of Equal Protection Under the Law for All Individuals When the Founding Fathers wrote in the Declaration of Independence that 'all men are created equal,' they actually were referring to men, and in fact defined citizens as white men who owned land. However, as the country has developed and changed, the definition has expanded to more wholly include all people. 'Equality' does not mean all people are inherently the same, but it does mean they all should be granted the same rights and should be treated the same by the government. Amendments to the Constitution have granted citizenship and voting rights to all Americans regardless of race or gender. The Supreme Court evaluates various laws and court decisions to determine if they properly represent the idea of equal protection. One sample case was Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, which declared separate-but-equal treatment to be unconstitutional. Civil Liberty Challenges Addressed in Current Political Discussions The civil rights movements of the 1960s and ongoing struggle for the rights of women and other minorities have sparked challenges to existing law. In addition, debate has raged over how much information the government should be required to divulge to the public. Major issues in today's political climate include:
Civil Liberties vs. Civil Rights While the terms 'civil liberties' and 'civil rights' are often used synonymously, in actuality their definitions are slightly different. The two concepts work together, however, to define the basics of a free state: 'Civil liberties' define the constitutional freedoms guaranteed to citizens. Examples include freedoms such as free speech, privacy, or free thought. · 'Civil rights' are guarantees of or protections of civil liberties. One comparison can be found in the case of freedom of religion. The civil liberty is that one has the freedom to practice the religion of his or her choice, whereas the civil right would protect that individual from being denied a job on the basis of their religion. Suffrage, Franchise and the Change of Voting Rights Over the Course of American History Suffrage and franchise both refer to the right to vote. A. the US developed as a nation, there was much debate over which individuals should hold this right. In the early years, only white male landowners were granted suffrage. By the nineteenth century, most states had franchised, or granted the right to vote to, all adult white males. The Fifteenth Amendment of 1870 granted suffrage to former slave men. The Nineteenth Amendment gave women the right to vote in 1920, and in 1971 the Twenty-sixth Amendment expanded voting rights to include any US citizen over the age of eighteen. However, those who have not been granted full citizenship and citizens who have committed certain crimes do not have voting rights. Ways in Which the Voting Process Has Changed Over the Years The first elections in the US were held by public ballot. However, election abuses soon became common, since public ballot made it easy to intimidate, threaten, or otherwise influence the votes of individuals or groups of individuals. New practices were put into play, including registering voters before elections took place, and using a secret or Australian ballot. In 1892, the introduction of the voting machine further privatized the voting process, since it allowed complete privacy for voting. Today debate continues about the accuracy of various voting methods, including high-tech voting machines and even low-tech punch cards. Effect of Political Parties on the Functioning of an Individual Government Different types and numbers of political parties can have a significant effect on how a government is run. If there is a single party, or a one-party system, the government is defined by that one party, and all policy is based on that party's beliefs. In a two-party system, two parties with different viewpoints compete for power and influence. The US is basically a two-party system, with checks and balances to make it difficult for one party to gain complete power over the other. There are also multi-party systems, with three or more parties. In multiparty systems, various parties will often come to agreements in order to form a majority and shift the balance of power. Development of Political Parties in the US. George Washington was adamantly against the establishment of political parties, based on the abuses perpetrated by such parties in Britain. However, political parties developed in US politics almost from the beginning. Major parties throughout US history have included: Federalists and Democratic-Republicans—these parties formed in the late 1700s and disagreed on the balance of power between national and state government. Democrats and Whigs—these developed in the 1830s and many political topics of the time centered on national economic issues. Democrats and Republicans—the Republican Party developed before the Civil War, after the collapse of the Whig party, and the two parties debated issues centering on slavery and economic issues, such as taxation. While third parties sometimes enter the picture in US politics, the government is basically a two-party system, dominated by the Democrats and Republicans. Functions of Political Parties Political parties form organizations at all levels of government. Activities of individual parties
Staffing government offices and providing administrative support A. the administrative level, parties work to ensure that viable candidates are available for elections and that offices and staff are in place to support candidates as they run for office and afterwards, when they are elected. Processes of Selecting Political Candidates Historically, in the quest for political office, a potential candidate has followed one of the following four processes:
Primary election—the most common method of choosing candidates today, the primary is a publicly held election to choose candidates. Petition—signatures are gathered to place a candidate on the ballot. Petitions can also be used to place legislation on a ballot. Ways the Average Citizen Participates in the Political Process In addition to voting for elected officials, American citizens are able to participate in the political process through several other avenues. These include:
Individuals can also donate money to political causes, or support political groups that focus on specific causes such as abortion, wildlife conservation or women's rights. These groups often make use of representatives who lobby legislators to act in support of their efforts. Ways in Which Political Campaign Gains Funding Political campaigns are very expensive. In addition to the basic necessities of a campaign office, including office supplies, office space, etc., a large quantity of the money that funds a political campaign goes toward advertising. Money to fund a political campaign can come from several sources including:
The most significant source of campaign funding is special interest groups. Groups in favor of certain policies will donate money to candidates they believe will support those policies. Special interest groups also do their own advertising in support of candidates they endorse. Importance of Free Press and the Media The right to free speech guaranteed in the first amendment to the Constitution allows the media to report on government and political activities without fear of retribution. Because the media has access to information about the government, its policies and actions, as well as debates and discussions that occur in Congress, it can keep the public informed about the inner workings of the government. The media can also draw attention to injustices, imbalances of power, and other transgressions the government or government officials might commit. However, media outlets may, like special interest groups, align themselves with certain political viewpoints and skew their reports to fit that viewpoint. The rise of the Internet has made media reporting even more complex, as news can be found from an infinite variety of sources, both reliable and unreliable. Forms of Government Anarchism, Communism and Dictatorship Anarchists believe that all government should be eliminated and that individuals should rule themselves. Historically, anarchists have used violence and assassination to further their beliefs. Communism is based on class conflict, revolution and a one-party state. Ideally, a communist government would involve a single government for the entire world. Communist government controls the production and flow of goods and services rather than leaving this to companies or individuals. Dictatorship involves rule by a single individual. If rule is enforced by a small group, this is referred to as an oligarchy. Dictators tend to rule with a violent hand, using a highly repressive police force to ensure control over the populace. Fascism and Monarchy Fascism centers on a single leader and is, ideologically, an oppositional belief to communism. Fascism includes a single party state and centralized control. The power of the fascist leader lies in the 'cult of personality,' and the fascist state often focuses on expansion and conquering of other nations. Monarchy was the major form of government for Europe through most of its history. A monarchy is led by a king or a queen. This position is hereditary, and the rulers are not elected. In modern times, constitutional monarchy has developed, where the king and queen still exist but most of the governmental decisions are made by democratic institutions such as a parliament. Presidential System and Socialism A presidential system, like a parliamentary system, has a legislature and political parties, but there is no difference between the head of state and the head of government. Instead of separating these functions, an elected president performs both. Election of the president can be direct or indirect, and the president may not necessarily belong to the largest political party. In socialism, the state controls production of goods, though it does not necessarily own all means of production. The state also provides a variety of social services to citizens and helps guide the economy. A democratic form of government often exists in socialist countries. Totalitarian and Authoritarian Systems A totalitarian system believes everything should be under the control of the government, from resource production to the press to religion and other social institutions. All aspects of life under a totalitarian system must conform to the ideals of the government. Authoritarian governments practice widespread state authority, but do not necessarily dismantle all public institutions. If a church, for example, exists as an organization but poses no threat to the authority of the state, an authoritarian government might leave it as it is. While all totalitarian governments are by definition authoritarian, a government can be authoritarian without becoming totalitarian Parliamentary and Democratic Systems In a parliamentary system, government involves a legislature and a variety of political parties. The head of government, usually a Prime Minister, is typically the head of the dominant party. A head of state can be elected, or this position can be taken by a monarch, as in Great Britain's constitutional monarchy system. In a democratic system of government, the people elect their government representatives. The word 'democracy' is a Greek term that means 'rule of the people.' There are two forms of democracy—direct and indirect. In a direct democracy, each issue or election is decided by a vote where each individual is counted separately. An indirect democracy employs a legislature that votes on issues that affect large numbers of people whom the legislative members represent. Democracy can exist as a parliamentary system or a presidential system. The US is a presidential, indirect democracy. Realism, Liberalism, Institutionalism and Constructivism in International Relations The theory of realism states that nations are by nature aggressive, and work in their own self-interest. Relations between nations are determined by military and economic strength. The nation is seen as the highest authority. Liberalism believes states can cooperate, and that they act based on capability rather than power. This term was originally coined to describe Woodrow Wilson's theories on international cooperation. In institutionalism, institutions provide structure and incentive for cooperation among nations. Institutions are defined as a set of rules used to make international decisions. These institutions also help distribute power and determine how nations will interact. Constructivism, like liberalism, is based on international cooperation, but recognizes that perceptions countries have of each other can affect their relations. Effects of Foreign Policy on a Country's Position in World Affairs Foreign policy is a set of goals, policies and strategies that determine how an individual nation will interact with other countries. These strategies shift, sometimes quickly and drastically, according to actions or changes occurring in the other countries. However, a nation's foreign policy is often based on a certain set of ideals and national needs. Examples of US foreign policy include isolationism versus internationalism. In the 1800s, the US leaned more toward isolationism, exhibiting a reluctance to become involved in foreign affairs. The World Wars led to a period of internationalism, as the US entered these wars in support of other countries and joined the United Nations. Today's foreign policy tends more toward interdependence, or globalism, recognizing the widespread effects of issues like economic health. Major Figures Involved in Determining and Enacting US Foreign Policy US foreign policy is largely determined by Congress and the president, influenced by the secretary of state, secretary of defense, and the national security adviser. Executive officials carry out policies. The main departments in charge of these day-to-day issues are the US Department of State, also referred to as the State Department. The Department of State carries out policy, negotiates treaties, maintains diplomatic relations, assists citizens traveling in foreign countries, and ensures that the president is properly informed of any international issues. The Department of Defense, the largest executive department in the US, supervises the armed forces and provides assistance to the President in his role as Commander-in-chief. Major Types of International Organizations Two types of international organizations are: Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs). These organizations are made up of members from various national governments. The UN is an example of an intergovernmental organization. Treaties among the member nations determine the functions and powers of these groups. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). An NGO lies outside the scope of any government and is usually supported through private donations. A. example of an NGO is the International Red Cross, which works with governments all over the world when their countries are in crisis, but is formally affiliated with no particular country or government. Role of Diplomats in International Relations Diplomats are individuals who reside in foreign countries in order to maintain communications between that country and their home country. They help negotiate trade agreements and environmental policies, as well as conveying official information to foreign governments. They also help to resolve conflicts between the countries, often working to sort out issues without making the conflicts official in any way. Diplomats, or ambassadors, are appointed in the US by the president. Appointments must be approved by Role of the United Nations in International Relations and Diplomacy The United Nations (UN) helps form international policies by hosting representatives of various countries who then provide input into policy decisions. Countries who are members of the UN must agree to abide by all final UN resolutions, but this is not always the case in practice, as dissent is not uncommon. If countries do not follow UN resolutions, the UN can decide on sanctions against those countries, often economic sanctions, such as trade restriction. The UN can also send military forces to problem areas, with 'peace keeping' troops brought in from member nations. An example of this function is the Korean War, the first war in which an international organization played a major role.
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