GED Reasoning Through Language Arts: Reading Comprehension, Non-Fiction Argument Structure, Claim, Evidence, Reasoning

What Is This?

Reading Comprehension — Non-Fiction: Argument Structure — Claim, Evidence, Reasoning is the process of analyzing and evaluating the logical structure of non-fiction texts, particularly arguments, to understand the author's claim, supporting evidence, and underlying reasoning.

This topic appears in exams to assess your ability to critically evaluate complex information, identify biases, and make informed decisions. It typically generates questions that require you to identify the author's claim, evaluate the evidence presented, and analyze the reasoning behind the argument.

Why It Matters

This topic is crucial for exams like the SAT, ACT, GRE, and GMAT, which often test your ability to analyze complex texts and evaluate arguments. It typically carries a significant portion of the marks, around 20-30%. This topic is testing your ability to think critically, evaluate evidence, and make informed decisions.

Core Concepts

To master this topic, you must understand the following core concepts:

• Claim: The main argument or statement made by the author.
• Evidence: The facts, data, or examples used to support the claim.
• Reasoning: The logical process used to connect the evidence to the claim.
• Signal words: Words or phrases that indicate the author's tone, attitude, or purpose.
• Fallacies: Common errors in reasoning, such as ad hominem attacks or straw man arguments.

Prerequisites

Before tackling this topic, you must already understand:

• Basic reading comprehension skills, including identifying main ideas and supporting details.
• Vocabulary related to argumentation, such as "claim," "evidence," and "reasoning."
• Basic logical concepts, including cause-and-effect relationships and analogies.

The Rule-Book (How It Works)

The primary rule is:

• The Claim-Evidence-Reasoning (CER) Framework: The author's claim is supported by evidence, which is connected to the claim through logical reasoning.

Sub-rules and exceptions include:

• Types of evidence: Facts, data, examples, expert opinions, and personal experiences.
• Types of reasoning: Deductive, inductive, and abductive reasoning.
• Signal words: Words like "however," "nevertheless," and "thus" indicate the author's tone or purpose.

A simple visual pattern to remember is:

Claim-Evidence-Reasoning-Conclusion

Exam / Job / Audit Weighting

Frequency: High Difficulty Rating: Intermediate Question Type or Real-World Task Type: Multiple-choice questions, short-answer questions, and essays.

Difficulty Level

Intermediate

Must-Know Rules, Formulas, Standards, or Principles

The three most important rules for this topic are:

1. The CER Framework: The author's claim is supported by evidence, which is connected to the claim through logical reasoning.
2. Signal words: Words like "however," "nevertheless," and "thus" indicate the author's tone or purpose.
3. Fallacies: Common errors in reasoning, such as ad hominem attacks or straw man arguments.

Worked Examples (Step-by-Step)

Easy

• Question: What is the author's claim in the following text? "The new policy will increase taxes on the wealthy."
• Reasoning: The author's claim is that the new policy will increase taxes on the wealthy.
• Key rule applied: Identify the main argument or statement made by the author.
• Answer: The author's claim is that the new policy will increase taxes on the wealthy.

Medium

• Question: What evidence does the author provide to support their claim in the following text? "The new policy will increase taxes on the wealthy. Studies have shown that this will lead to a significant increase in government revenue."
• Reasoning: The author provides evidence in the form of studies that show a significant increase in government revenue.
• Key rule applied: Identify the evidence used to support the author's claim.
• Answer: The author provides evidence in the form of studies that show a significant increase in government revenue.

Hard

• Question: What fallacy does the author commit in the following text? "The new policy will increase taxes on the wealthy, and that's a bad thing. My friend's uncle is a wealthy businessman, and he's always been a good guy."
• Reasoning: The author commits an ad hominem fallacy by attacking the character of the wealthy businessman rather than addressing the argument.
• Key rule applied: Identify common errors in reasoning, such as ad hominem attacks or straw man arguments.
• Answer: The author commits an ad hominem fallacy by attacking the character of the wealthy businessman rather than addressing the argument.

Common Exam Traps & Mistakes

Trap 1: Failing to identify the author's claim

• Wrong answer: "The author's claim is that the new policy will decrease taxes on the wealthy."
• Why it looks right: The text mentions that the new policy will increase taxes on the wealthy, but the author's claim is actually that the policy will increase taxes on the wealthy, which is a different statement.
• Correct approach: Identify the main argument or statement made by the author.

Trap 2: Failing to evaluate the evidence

• Wrong answer: "The author provides no evidence to support their claim."
• Why it looks right: The text mentions that the new policy will increase taxes on the wealthy, but the author provides no evidence to support this claim.
• Correct approach: Identify the evidence used to support the author's claim.

Trap 3: Failing to analyze the reasoning

• Wrong answer: "The author's reasoning is flawed because they provide no evidence to support their claim."
• Why it looks right: The text mentions that the new policy will increase taxes on the wealthy, but the author provides no evidence to support this claim, which makes their reasoning flawed.
• Correct approach: Analyze the logical process used to connect the evidence to the claim.

Shortcut Strategies & Exam Hacks

• Memory aid: Use the CER Framework to remember the structure of an argument: Claim-Evidence-Reasoning-Conclusion.
• Elimination strategy: Eliminate answer choices that do not clearly identify the author's claim or provide evidence to support it.
• Pattern recognition: Recognize signal words like "however," "nevertheless," and "thus" that indicate the author's tone or purpose.

Question-Type Taxonomy

The following question formats appear in exams:

Practice Set (MCQs)

Question 1

What is the author's claim in the following text? "The new policy will increase taxes on the wealthy. This will lead to a significant increase in government revenue, which will be used to fund important social programs." A) The new policy will decrease taxes on the wealthy. B) The new policy will increase taxes on the wealthy. C) The new policy will have no impact on government revenue. D) The new policy will lead to a significant decrease in government revenue.

Correct Answer

B) The new policy will increase taxes on the wealthy.

Explanation

The author's claim is that the new policy will increase taxes on the wealthy, which is supported by evidence in the form of studies that show a significant increase in government revenue.

Why the Distractors Are Tempting

A) The text mentions that the new policy will increase taxes on the wealthy, but the author's claim is actually that the policy will increase taxes on the wealthy, which is a different statement. C) The text mentions that the new policy will lead to a significant increase in government revenue, but this is not the author's claim. D) The text mentions that the new policy will lead to a significant increase in government revenue, but this is not the author's claim.

Question 2

What evidence does the author provide to support their claim in the following text? "The new policy will increase taxes on the wealthy. Studies have shown that this will lead to a significant increase in government revenue." A) Expert opinions B) Facts C) Data D) Personal experiences

Correct Answer

C) Data

Explanation

The author provides evidence in the form of studies that show a significant increase in government revenue, which is a type of data.

Why the Distractors Are Tempting

A) The text mentions that the author provides evidence, but it does not specify the type of evidence. B) The text mentions that the author provides evidence, but it does not specify the type of evidence. D) The text mentions that the author provides evidence, but it does not specify the type of evidence.

Question 3

What fallacy does the author commit in the following text? "The new policy will increase taxes on the wealthy, and that's a bad thing. My friend's uncle is a wealthy businessman, and he's always been a good guy." A) Ad hominem fallacy B) Straw man fallacy C) False dichotomy fallacy D) Appeal to authority fallacy

Correct Answer

A) Ad hominem fallacy

Explanation

The author commits an ad hominem fallacy by attacking the character of the wealthy businessman rather than addressing the argument.

Why the Distractors Are Tempting

B) The text mentions that the author attacks the character of the wealthy businessman, but this is not an example of a straw man fallacy. C) The text mentions that the author attacks the character of the wealthy businessman, but this is not an example of a false dichotomy fallacy. D) The text mentions that the author attacks the character of the wealthy businessman, but this is not an example of an appeal to authority fallacy.

30-Second Cheat Sheet

• Claim: The main argument or statement made by the author.
• Evidence: The facts, data, or examples used to support the claim.
• Reasoning: The logical process used to connect the evidence to the claim.
• Signal words: Words or phrases that indicate the author's tone, attitude, or purpose.
• Fallacies: Common errors in reasoning, such as ad hominem attacks or straw man arguments.
• CER Framework: The author's claim is supported by evidence, which is connected to the claim through logical reasoning.

Learning Path

1. Beginner foundation: Understand basic reading comprehension skills, including identifying main ideas and supporting details.
2. Core rules: Learn the CER Framework, signal words, and common fallacies.
3. Practice: Practice identifying claims, evaluating evidence, and analyzing reasoning.
4. Timed drills: Practice under timed conditions to simulate the exam experience.
5. Mock tests: Take mock tests to assess your knowledge and identify areas for improvement.

Related Topics

• Reading Comprehension — Fiction: Understanding and analyzing fiction texts.
• Argumentation: Identifying and evaluating arguments in various contexts.
• Critical Thinking: Evaluating information and making informed decisions.