Media literacy 101: Advertising and Persuasion Techniques - Glittering Generalities NameCalling

What This Is

Glittering Generalities and Name-Calling are two classic propaganda techniques used to manipulate public opinion. Glittering Generalities involve using positive, uplifting words to associate a product, idea, or person with desirable qualities, bypassing rational scrutiny. Name-Calling, on the other hand, involves labeling an opposing viewpoint or person with negative, derogatory terms to discredit and intimidate. These techniques are particularly effective in democratic societies where critical thinking is encouraged, but also where people are often emotionally invested in their beliefs.

For example, during the 2016 US presidential election, Donald Trump's campaign used Glittering Generalities by associating his opponent Hillary Clinton with "crookedness" and "corruption," while portraying himself as a "winner" and a "champion of the people." This emotional appeal helped to bypass rational scrutiny and sway undecided voters.

Key Theories & Models

• Propaganda Model (Herman & Chomsky): Five filters (ownership, funding, sourcing, flak, anti-communism/ideology) shape news into pro-establishment narratives – explains why some stories are systematically marginalised.
• Inoculation Theory (McGuire, Compton): Pre-exposing people to weakened versions of misinformation can build resistance – basis for pre-bunking games like “Bad News”.
• Framing Theory (Goffman): The way information is presented influences how it is perceived and understood – explains how Glittering Generalities and Name-Calling work.
• Agenda-Setting Theory (McCombs & Shaw): The media sets the public agenda by deciding what issues to cover and how to cover them – explains how Name-Calling can set the tone for public discourse.
• Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner): People define themselves in relation to groups and will often conform to group norms – explains how Name-Calling can be used to create an "us vs them" mentality.
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger): People experience discomfort when their beliefs are challenged and will often rationalise or deny new information to maintain consistency – explains how Glittering Generalities can create a sense of cognitive dissonance.
• Bandwagon Effect (Asch): People are more likely to adopt a behaviour or belief if they see others doing so – explains how Name-Calling can create a sense of social pressure.
• Availability Heuristic (Tversky & Kahneman): People overestimate the importance or likelihood of information that is readily available – explains how Glittering Generalities can create a sense of urgency or importance.

Step-by-Step Application

1. Identify the technique: Recognise whether the message is using Glittering Generalities or Name-Calling.
2. Analyze the language: Look for positive or negative words, and consider the context in which they are being used.
3. Check for emotional appeals: Consider whether the message is appealing to emotions rather than reason.
4. Evaluate the evidence: Check whether the message is supported by credible sources or evidence.
5. Consider the source: Think about the motivations and biases of the person or organisation behind the message.
6. Look for inconsistencies: Check whether the message is consistent with other information or evidence.

Common Misconceptions

• Misconception: "Propaganda is just lies."
• Correction: Propaganda can be subtle and manipulative, using techniques like Glittering Generalities and Name-Calling to influence public opinion.
• Misconception: "Smart people can't be fooled."
• Correction: Anyone can be influenced by propaganda, regardless of their intelligence or education.
• Misconception: "The news is completely objective."
• Correction: News outlets can have biases and agendas, and journalists can make mistakes or be influenced by propaganda.
• Misconception: "Fact-checking always works."
• Correction: Fact-checking can be time-consuming and resource-intensive, and may not always be effective in debunking propaganda.

Exam / Case Interview Tips

• Be specific: When discussing propaganda techniques, be specific about how they are being used and what their effects are.
• Use theory: Draw on relevant theories and models to explain how propaganda works.
• Consider context: Think about the social, cultural, and historical context in which the propaganda is being used.
• Evaluate evidence: Consider the evidence and sources used to support the propaganda message.
• Be aware of traps: Be aware of common pitfalls and traps, such as assuming that propaganda is always obvious or that fact-checking is always effective.

Quick Practice Scenario

A news outlet repeatedly pairs the word "crisis" with images of migrants. What framing technique is being used and what is its likely effect?

Answer: The news outlet is using the framing technique of Glittering Generalities to associate migrants with a negative and emotive term, "crisis." This is likely to create a sense of fear and anxiety among viewers, and to influence their attitudes towards migrants.

Last-Minute Cram Sheet

• Glittering Generalities: A propaganda technique that uses positive words to associate a product, idea, or person with desirable qualities.
• Name-Calling: A propaganda technique that labels an opposing viewpoint or person with negative, derogatory terms.
• Propaganda Model (Herman & Chomsky): A theory that explains how the media shapes public opinion through five filters.
• Inoculation Theory (McGuire, Compton): A theory that explains how pre-exposing people to weakened versions of misinformation can build resistance.
• Framing Theory (Goffman): A theory that explains how the way information is presented influences how it is perceived and understood.
• Agenda-Setting Theory (McCombs & Shaw): A theory that explains how the media sets the public agenda by deciding what issues to cover and how to cover them.
• Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner): A theory that explains how people define themselves in relation to groups and will often conform to group norms.
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger): A theory that explains how people experience discomfort when their beliefs are challenged and will often rationalise or deny new information to maintain consistency.
• Bandwagon Effect (Asch): A theory that explains how people are more likely to adopt a behaviour or belief if they see others doing so.
• Availability Heuristic (Tversky & Kahneman): A theory that explains how people overestimate the importance or likelihood of information that is readily available.
• Edward Bernays: A pioneer of modern propaganda who used techniques like Glittering Generalities and Name-Calling to influence public opinion.
• Noam Chomsky: A critic of propaganda who has written extensively on the Propaganda Model and its effects on public opinion.
• Walter Lippmann: A journalist and critic of propaganda who wrote about the importance of critical thinking and media literacy.
• Jacques Ellul: A philosopher and critic of propaganda who wrote about the ways in which propaganda can be used to manipulate public opinion.
• Cambridge Analytica: A company that used data analysis and propaganda techniques to influence the 2016 US presidential election.
• Russian Internet Research Agency: A Russian government-backed organisation that used propaganda and disinformation to influence the 2016 US presidential election.
• Tobacco industry disinformation: A campaign of propaganda and disinformation used by the tobacco industry to downplay the health risks of smoking.
• Climate denial: A campaign of propaganda and disinformation used to downplay the risks of climate change.
• Viral misinformation during COVID-19: A campaign of propaganda and disinformation used to spread false information about the COVID-19 pandemic.