Media literacy 101: Case Studies in Manipulation - Russian Internet Research Agency IRA Troll Farms

What This Is

The Russian Internet Research Agency (IRA) Troll Farms refer to the network of fake social media accounts and websites created by the Russian government to influence public opinion, sow discord, and manipulate elections in the United States and other countries. These troll farms used emotional appeals, conspiracy theories, and fake news to bypass rational scrutiny and create a sense of urgency or outrage among their target audiences. For example, during the 2016 US presidential election, IRA trolls created fake Facebook accounts that promoted divisive content, such as racist and anti-immigrant messages, to polarize voters and undermine trust in the democratic process.

Key Theories & Models

• Propaganda Model (Herman & Chomsky): Five filters (ownership, funding, sourcing, flak, anti-communism/ideology) shape news into pro-establishment narratives – explains why some stories are systematically marginalised.
• Inoculation Theory (McGuire, Compton): Pre-exposing people to weakened versions of misinformation can build resistance – basis for pre-bunking games like “Bad News”.
• Agenda-Setting Theory (McCombs & Shaw): Media can influence what issues people think about and how they think about them – explains how IRA trolls used social media to set the agenda and shape public opinion.
• Framing Theory (Goffman): How information is presented can influence how people think about it – explains how IRA trolls used emotive language and images to frame issues in a way that resonated with their target audiences.
• Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner): People define themselves in relation to groups and will often conform to group norms – explains how IRA trolls used social media to create and exploit social identities and divisions.
• Network Analysis (Borgatti & Everett): The structure of social networks can influence the spread of information – explains how IRA trolls used social media to create and manipulate networks of influence.
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger): People tend to avoid cognitive dissonance by rationalising or justifying their beliefs – explains how IRA trolls used cognitive dissonance to create and exploit confirmation bias.
• The Spiral of Silence (Noelle-Neumann): People are less likely to express opinions that go against the majority – explains how IRA trolls used social media to create a sense of silence and conformity around certain issues.
• The Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo): People process information in two ways: centrally (rationally) or peripherally (emotionally) – explains how IRA trolls used emotional appeals to bypass rational scrutiny.
• The Source Credibility Model (Holvland, Janis, & Kelley): People are more likely to accept information from credible sources – explains how IRA trolls used fake social media accounts to create the illusion of credibility.

Step-by-Step Application

1. Identify the source: Determine whether the information is coming from a credible source or a troll farm.
2. Check for emotional appeals: Look for language or images that are designed to evoke emotions rather than rational thought.
3. Verify the facts: Use fact-checking websites or reputable sources to verify the accuracy of the information.
4. Look for red flags: Be aware of language or tactics that are commonly used by troll farms, such as conspiracy theories or divisive rhetoric.
5. Use reverse image search: Use tools like Google Images to verify the authenticity of images or videos.
6. Check for consistency: Look for inconsistencies in the information or contradictions with established facts.

Common Misconceptions

• Misconception: Propaganda is just lies.
• Correction: Propaganda can be subtle and manipulative, using emotional appeals and framing to influence public opinion.
• Misconception: Smart people can't be fooled.
• Correction: Anyone can be influenced by propaganda, regardless of their intelligence or education.
• Misconception: The news is completely objective.
• Correction: All news is filtered through some kind of lens or agenda, and propaganda can be used to shape public opinion.
• Misconception: Fact-checking always works.
• Correction: Fact-checking is not foolproof, and propaganda can be designed to evade fact-checking.

Exam / Case Interview Tips

• Be aware of the distinction between disinformation and misinformation: Disinformation is intentionally false information, while misinformation is unintentionally false information.
• Understand the difference between framing and agenda-setting: Framing refers to how information is presented, while agenda-setting refers to what issues are prioritized.
• Be prepared to explain the concept of astroturfing: Astroturfing refers to the practice of creating the illusion of grassroots support for a particular issue or product.
• Use real-world examples to illustrate key concepts: Use examples from the IRA troll farms or other propaganda campaigns to illustrate key concepts and theories.

Quick Practice Scenario

A news outlet repeatedly pairs the word 'crisis' with images of migrants. What framing technique is being used and what is its likely effect?

Answer: The news outlet is using the framing technique of emotive framing, which is designed to evoke emotions rather than rational thought. The likely effect is to create a sense of urgency and fear among the audience, which can influence their opinions and attitudes towards migrants.

Last-Minute Cram Sheet

• Propaganda is not just for totalitarian regimes – democracies use it too; Bernays called it 'engineering consent'.
• The Russian Internet Research Agency (IRA) Troll Farms used fake social media accounts to influence public opinion during the 2016 US presidential election.
• The Propaganda Model (Herman & Chomsky) explains how five filters shape news into pro-establishment narratives.
• Inoculation Theory (McGuire, Compton) explains how pre-exposing people to weakened versions of misinformation can build resistance.
• Agenda-Setting Theory (McCombs & Shaw) explains how media can influence what issues people think about and how they think about them.
• Framing Theory (Goffman) explains how information is presented can influence how people think about it.
• Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner) explains how people define themselves in relation to groups and will often conform to group norms.
• Network Analysis (Borgatti & Everett) explains how the structure of social networks can influence the spread of information.
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger) explains how people tend to avoid cognitive dissonance by rationalising or justifying their beliefs.
• The Spiral of Silence (Noelle-Neumann) explains how people are less likely to express opinions that go against the majority.
• The Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo) explains how people process information in two ways: centrally (rationally) or peripherally (emotionally).
• The Source Credibility Model (Holvland, Janis, & Kelley) explains how people are more likely to accept information from credible sources.