Media literacy 101: Cognitive Biases in Media - Source Amnesia Sleeper Effect

What This Is

Source Amnesia and Sleeper Effect are two psychological phenomena that enable the manipulation of public opinion through subtle, often unconscious, means. Source Amnesia occurs when people forget or misattribute the origin of information, making it difficult to evaluate its credibility. Sleeper Effect, on the other hand, happens when people initially reject information due to its source, but later accept it when the source is forgotten or becomes less relevant. These effects are crucial to understanding how propaganda, disinformation, and misinformation spread, often with devastating consequences.

For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, a viral social media post claimed that wearing masks would increase oxygen consumption and lead to health problems. Many people initially dismissed this claim as a conspiracy theory, but when the source was forgotten, the claim persisted, causing widespread confusion and anxiety.

Key Theories & Models

• Propaganda Model (Herman & Chomsky): Five filters (ownership, funding, sourcing, flak, anti-communism/ideology) shape news into pro-establishment narratives – explains why some stories are systematically marginalised.
• Inoculation Theory (McGuire, Compton): Pre-exposing people to weakened versions of misinformation can build resistance – basis for pre-bunking games like “Bad News”.
• Agenda-Setting Theory (McCombs & Shaw): Media can influence public opinion by deciding what issues to cover and how to frame them – highlights the power of media in shaping public discourse.
• Framing Effect (Goffman): The way information is presented can influence how people perceive and process it – used in advertising and propaganda to create emotional connections.
• Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner): People define themselves in relation to groups and are more likely to accept information that confirms their group identity – exploited in propaganda campaigns to create in-group vs. out-group dynamics.
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger): People experience discomfort when their beliefs are challenged and may change their attitudes to reduce dissonance – used in propaganda to create a sense of urgency or crisis.
• Two-Step Flow Model (Katz & Lazarsfeld): Mass media influence opinion leaders, who then influence their social networks – highlights the role of opinion leaders in shaping public opinion.
• Diffusion of Innovations Theory (Rogers): New ideas or behaviors spread through social networks, often through influential individuals – used in propaganda to promote new ideas or behaviors.
• Source Credibility Theory (Hovland & Weiss): People evaluate information based on the credibility of the source – exploited in propaganda to create a sense of authority or expertise.

Step-by-Step Application

1. Identify the source: Determine the origin of the information, including the author, publication, and any potential biases.
2. Evaluate the credibility: Assess the credibility of the source based on its expertise, track record, and potential conflicts of interest.
3. Check for corroboration: Verify the information through multiple sources to ensure consistency and accuracy.
4. Look for framing effects: Be aware of how the information is presented, including the use of emotional appeals, loaded language, or selective data.
5. Consider the agenda: Evaluate whether the information is part of a larger agenda or narrative, and whether it serves to promote a particular ideology or interest.
6. Be aware of social identity: Recognize how the information may appeal to your own social identity or group affiliations, and be cautious of confirmation bias.

Common Misconceptions

• Misconception: Propaganda is just lies.
• Correction: Propaganda often uses subtle, manipulative techniques to influence public opinion, rather than outright lies. For example, the tobacco industry's campaign to create doubt about the health risks of smoking used scientific-sounding language and cherry-picked data to create a false narrative.
• Misconception: Smart people can't be fooled.
• Correction: Even intelligent and well-informed individuals can be susceptible to propaganda and manipulation, especially if they are not aware of the tactics being used. For example, the Cambridge Analytica scandal showed how sophisticated data analysis and psychological manipulation can influence even well-educated voters.
• Misconception: The news is completely objective.
• Correction: While some news outlets strive for objectivity, most media outlets have some level of bias or agenda, whether intentional or unintentional. For example, the Propaganda Model highlights how ownership, funding, and sourcing can shape news narratives.
• Misconception: Fact-checking always works.
• Correction: Fact-checking is an important tool, but it is not foolproof. Propaganda and disinformation often use complex, nuanced arguments that can be difficult to debunk. For example, the Russian Internet Research Agency's disinformation campaign during the 2016 US election used sophisticated, targeted messaging that was difficult to fact-check.

Exam / Case Interview Tips

• Be aware of tricky distinctions: Distinguish between disinformation, misinformation, and propaganda, and be able to explain the differences.
• Use theory to frame answers: Ground your answers in relevant theories and models, such as the Propaganda Model or the Framing Effect.
• Consider the context: Evaluate the context in which the information is being presented, including the source, audience, and purpose.
• Look for red flags: Be aware of common propaganda tactics, such as emotional appeals, loaded language, and selective data.

Quick Practice Scenario

A news outlet repeatedly pairs the word "crisis" with images of migrants. What framing technique is being used and what is its likely effect?

Answer: The news outlet is using the Framing Effect to create a sense of urgency and crisis around the issue of migration. This is likely to influence public opinion by creating an emotional connection to the issue, rather than a rational evaluation of the facts.

Last-Minute Cram Sheet

• Source Amnesia: Forgetting or misattributing the origin of information.
• Sleeper Effect: Initially rejecting information due to its source, but later accepting it when the source is forgotten.
• Propaganda Model: Five filters (ownership, funding, sourcing, flak, anti-communism/ideology) shape news into pro-establishment narratives.
• Inoculation Theory: Pre-exposing people to weakened versions of misinformation can build resistance.
• Agenda-Setting Theory: Media can influence public opinion by deciding what issues to cover and how to frame them.
• Framing Effect: The way information is presented can influence how people perceive and process it.
• Social Identity Theory: People define themselves in relation to groups and are more likely to accept information that confirms their group identity.
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory: People experience discomfort when their beliefs are challenged and may change their attitudes to reduce dissonance.
• Two-Step Flow Model: Mass media influence opinion leaders, who then influence their social networks.
• Diffusion of Innovations Theory: New ideas or behaviors spread through social networks, often through influential individuals.
• Source Credibility Theory: People evaluate information based on the credibility of the source.
• Bernays: Known as the "father of public relations," Bernays used propaganda techniques to promote consumerism and other ideologies.
• Chomsky: Critic of the Propaganda Model and advocate for media literacy and critical thinking.
• Lippmann: Influential thinker on the role of media in shaping public opinion and the importance of media literacy.
• Ellul: French philosopher and critic of modern propaganda and manipulation.
• Cambridge Analytica: Scandalous example of data analysis and psychological manipulation used to influence voters.
• Russian Internet Research Agency: Disinformation campaign during the 2016 US election that used sophisticated, targeted messaging.
• Tobacco industry disinformation: Campaign to create doubt about the health risks of smoking using scientific-sounding language and cherry-picked data.