Media literacy 101: Foundations of Propaganda - Edward Bernays Engineering Consent

What This Is

Edward Bernays' concept of "engineering consent" refers to the deliberate manipulation of public opinion through strategic communication, often using emotional appeals, framing, and other tactics to bypass rational scrutiny. This matters because it reveals how information is shaped, spun, or weaponised to influence people's beliefs and actions. For example, during the 1920s, Bernays orchestrated a campaign to promote cigarette smoking among women by associating it with glamour and independence, using tactics like framing and emotional appeals to bypass concerns about health risks.

Key Theories & Models

• Propaganda Model (Herman & Chomsky): Five filters (ownership, funding, sourcing, flak, anti-communism/ideology) shape news into pro-establishment narratives – explains why some stories are systematically marginalised.
• Inoculation Theory (McGuire, Compton): Pre-exposing people to weakened versions of misinformation can build resistance – basis for pre-bunking games like “Bad News”.
• Framing Effect (Goffman, Lakoff): The way information is presented influences how it is perceived – e.g., using words like "crisis" or "opportunity" to shape public opinion.
• Agenda-Setting Theory (McCombs & Shaw): The media sets the public agenda by deciding what issues to cover and how to frame them – explains why some topics receive more attention than others.
• Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner): People define themselves in relation to groups and are more likely to accept information that confirms their group identity – used in campaigns to mobilise support for a particular cause or ideology.
• Cultural Cues (Goffman): Cultural norms and values influence how people interpret information – e.g., using patriotic imagery to associate a product with American values.
• Bandwagon Effect (Asch): People are more likely to accept information if they believe others accept it – used in campaigns to create a sense of momentum or consensus.
• Availability Heuristic (Tversky & Kahneman): People overestimate the importance of information that is readily available – used in campaigns to create a sense of urgency or crisis.
• Confirmation Bias (Nickerson): People tend to seek out information that confirms their existing beliefs – used in campaigns to reinforce existing attitudes or opinions.

Step-by-Step Application

1. Identify the goal: Determine what the communicator is trying to achieve (e.g., change public opinion, influence policy, sell a product).
2. Analyze the message: Break down the message into its component parts (e.g., language, imagery, framing) and consider how they work together to achieve the goal.
3. Consider the context: Take into account the social, cultural, and historical context in which the message is being communicated.
4. Evaluate the evidence: Assess the quality and relevance of the evidence being used to support the message.
5. Look for red flags: Be aware of tactics like emotional appeals, framing, and confirmation bias, which can be used to manipulate public opinion.
6. Consider alternative perspectives: Seek out diverse viewpoints and consider alternative explanations for the information being presented.

Common Misconceptions

• Misconception: "Propaganda is just lies."
• Correction: Propaganda often uses truthful information, but presents it in a way that is misleading or deceptive. For example, a campaign might use statistics to support a claim, but cherry-pick the data to create a misleading picture.
• Misconception: "Smart people can't be fooled."
• Correction: People of all intelligence levels can be influenced by propaganda, especially if it is well-designed and presented in a way that resonates with their values and beliefs.
• Misconception: "The news is completely objective."
• Correction: While journalists strive for objectivity, the news is often shaped by biases and agendas, and can be influenced by factors like ownership, funding, and sourcing.
• Misconception: "Fact-checking always works."
• Correction: Fact-checking can be effective, but it is not foolproof, and can be influenced by factors like bias, confirmation bias, and the availability heuristic.

Exam / Case Interview Tips

• Be aware of tricky distinctions: For example, distinguish between disinformation (false information) and misinformation (true information presented in a misleading way).
• Consider the context: Take into account the social, cultural, and historical context in which the message is being communicated.
• Evaluate the evidence: Assess the quality and relevance of the evidence being used to support the message.
• Look for red flags: Be aware of tactics like emotional appeals, framing, and confirmation bias, which can be used to manipulate public opinion.

Quick Practice Scenario

A news outlet repeatedly pairs the word "crisis" with images of migrants. What framing technique is being used and what is its likely effect?

Answer: The news outlet is using the framing effect to associate migrants with a crisis, which is likely to create a negative emotional response and influence public opinion against migrants.

Last-Minute Cram Sheet

• Edward Bernays coined the term "engineering consent" to describe the deliberate manipulation of public opinion.
• Propaganda can be used in democratic societies to influence public opinion and policy.
• The propaganda model (Herman & Chomsky) identifies five filters that shape news into pro-establishment narratives.
• The framing effect (Goffman, Lakoff) shows how the way information is presented influences how it is perceived.
• Social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner) explains how people define themselves in relation to groups and are more likely to accept information that confirms their group identity.
• The bandwagon effect (Asch) shows how people are more likely to accept information if they believe others accept it.
• The availability heuristic (Tversky & Kahneman) explains how people overestimate the importance of information that is readily available.
• Confirmation bias (Nickerson) shows how people tend to seek out information that confirms their existing beliefs.
• Propaganda can be used to create a sense of urgency or crisis.
• The news is often shaped by biases and agendas, and can be influenced by factors like ownership, funding, and sourcing.
• Fact-checking can be effective, but is not foolproof, and can be influenced by factors like bias, confirmation bias, and the availability heuristic.