Education FTC5: Foundations of Teaching Practice WGU (Notes)

Why should teachers use multiple measures when assessing students?
Measuring reasoning ability requires multiple instruments.

What are 3 valid reasons for assessing students
1. Screen students for specific purposes
2. Inform decision makers about student behaviors
3. Monitor student progress toward a goal

What measurement term refers to the degree to which a test measures what it is designed to test?
Validity

What are 3 reasons why testing accommodations for students with disabilities are important?
1. Such accommodations enable testing practices to be deemed fair to all students.
2. Such accommodations enable most students to be tested.
3. Such accommodations help ensure that the results will be an accurate indication of student ability.

What is the most critical problem that can result from standardized achievement test accommodation?
Accommodation changes the nature of the measurement.

What are three fair and ethical testing procedures?
1. Research scores from individual minority populations to determine whether scores are comparable
2. Provide non-English-speaking students the opportunity to take mathematics and science exams in their native languages
3. Grade essays without regard for who wrote the essay

What are 3 misuses of state-mandated standardized achievement test scores?
1. Compute class grades using standardized test scores
2. Compare scores on the exam to in-class quizzes
3. Assign students to remedial or accelerated tracks based solely on their scores

What does an educator determine from examining scores on a criterion-referenced test? (2)
1. That a student is not doing well in a particular subject
2. What specific skill the student should be working on

What is a common benefit of standardized achievement tests?
Scores are comparable across populations.

Formative Assessments (5)
1. Designed to determine if additional instruction is needed
2. Continuous feedback to teacher
3. Can test smaller units
4. Can monitor progress
5. Informal assessment

Summative Assessments (2)
1. Comprehensive measure of achievement
2. Final evaluation of student's achievement of objective

Constructed Response (4)
1. Requires student to supply answer rather than select an answer
2. Depends on respondent's writing ability
3. Requires support of answer with reasoning
4. Difficult to score

Selected Response (4)
1. Respondents can select from one or more possible answers
2. Scorer doesn't have to interpret response
3. Limited to presented options
4. Common on standardized tests

What is the primary purpose of the Woodcock Reading Mastery Exam (WRM)?
Achievement

What was Eraut's major criticism of using reflection?
Sometimes decisions need to be made quickly, and there is not time for reflection.

What are two major purposes of reflection?
1. Help individuals self-correct behaviors and ideas.
2. Empower learners to take ownership of ideas.

Birth-Age 2 (2)
1. Neurons branch and grow into dense connective networks between the brain and the rest of the body
2. The body quadruples in weight and the brain triples in weight

Age 2-6 (1)
The brain continues to develop faster than any other part of the body, up to 90% of its adult weight

Age 7-11 (2)
1. The child's body grows much more slowly relative to other periods of life.
2. The growth that occurs during these years usually proceeds from the extremities to the torso and may be uneven

Age 12-18 (3)
1. Increases in hormonal levels occur, resulting in a growth spurt
2. Males generally become taller than females and develop deeper voices and characteristic patterns of facial and body hair.
3. Increased strength and heart and lung capacity give the child endurance to improve performance in swimming and running

What are 2 ways to describe the way a child goes up and down steps at the end of early childhood?
1. Steps once on each step, alternating feet.
2. Takes coordinated, even steps.

What is true about the beginning of a child's growth spurt?
Most girls begin their growth spurt by the start of fifth grade.

What are 2 statements that are true of girls going through puberty?
1. Almost all girls begin menstruation by age 13.
2. Most girls reach their adult stature by age 16.

Attachment Theory (3)
1. Infants develop emotional ties to their mothers because mothers are
associated with satisfying biological needs
2. Infants are born with biological drives that must be gratified
3. Emotional development is observed in a series of progressive stages

Social Learning Theory (2)
1. Infants are programmed to behave in ways that will keep adults nearby
2. Infants will develop trust as a result of satisfactory nurturing

Ethology
An animal is born with a set of fixed action patterns such as imprinting.

What is the adolescent going through if: The adolescent experiments with goals and values by abandoning some of those set by parents and society. No definite commitments have been made to occupations or ideologies? The adolescent is in the midst of an identity crisis.
Moratorium Status

What is the adolescent going through if: The adolescent prematurely establishes an identity based on parents' choices rather than the adolescent's choices? An identity crisis has not been experienced.
Foreclosure Status

What is the adolescent going through if: The adolescent has few commitments to goals and values, and seems apathetic about finding an identity?. If an identity crisis has been experienced, it has not been resolved.
Identity Diffusion Status

What is the adolescent going through if: The adolescent establishes an identity in which clear decisions about occupations and ideologies have been consciously made?
Identity Achievement Status

What is typical of 5-year olds?
Have a sense of pride in their accomplishments and enjoy demonstrating their achievements.

ADD/ADHD
Struggles with sustained concentration and fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes

Cognitive Delay
Demonstrates low intellectual functioning (IQ) and poor adaptive skills

Deaf
Hearing disability precludes successful processing of linguistic information through audition, with or without a hearing aid

Learning Disability
Has average IQ with below average ability to listen, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations.

Language Disorder
Does not comprehend or use language well for communication, regardless of the mode (spoken, written, etc.).

...
Needs a variety of augmentation devices to successfully perform auditory tasks.

What are symptoms of autism in children? (4)
1. Frequent biting
2. Repetitive hitting of head
3. Repetitive rocking
4. Impaired social interactions

Educational Support
Responsive team, including parents, that creates and implements a meaningful academic intervention plan.

Socialization Support (2)
1. Network of organizations that creates or finds extracurricular activities in which disabled students can participate.
2. Assistance from schools and community organizations to provide training and opportunities for peer-to-peer interaction.

Daily Support Care
Respite provider or plan to intermittently relieve parents
of ongoing care needs.

Economic Support Care
Medicaid, Social Security, or therapeutic services provided
by school employees rather than private therapists.

Why may students of lower socioeconomic status perform poorly in school? (5)
1. Their parents are less likely to demand obedience from them.
2. Their parents are less likely to expect high achievement in school.
3. They are less likely to visit museums or other educational locations.
4. They often have fewer learning materials in the home.
5. Their parents are less likely to be able to help them with homework.

What is a likely impact of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome?
Height, weight, and growth deficiencies

If there is a group of teachers is discussing the effects of the behavioral view of learning and how it is demonstrated in the classroom. What might they discuss? (3)
1. Reinforcers increase the tendency to a specific behavior.
2. Extinction is an effective method for eliminating a behavior.
3. Cues indicate which behaviors are acceptable or not.

What behaviors indicate that a teacher is using the constructivist view of learning? (3)
1. The teacher reads a story to the students and various students ask questions about the story to ensure all the students understand it.
2. Students work individually with manipulatives, discovering all of the number pairs that add up to 10.
3. The teacher reads a story and asks the students questions to ensure that they all understand the story.

What are 3 main principles of the humanist view of learning?
1. Locus of control
2. Locus of success
3. Locus of motivation

What 3 activities demonstrate the social learning theory?
1. A student works through a mathematical problem on the blackboard and the teacher explains each step to the class during the process.
2. A student works through a mathematical problem on the blackboard and explains each step to the class during the process.
3. When forming cooperative learning groups, the teacher includes a student with high levels of motivation and a student with strong academic skills in each group.

Why do males typically score higher than females in math? (2)
1. Males have a stronger aptitude for quantitative reasoning.
2. Females are often discouraged from studying math.

Which of the following behaviors signal that increased moral development is affecting a student's learning? (3)
1. Student does not recognize the need for laws
2. Student engages willingly in cooperative activities
3. Student is motivated solely by self-interest

Which of the following are examples of critical thinking exercises a teacher could assign to students reading Snow White and the Seven Dwarves? (4)
1. Write a letter to Snow White.
2. Discuss how the dwarves felt when Snow White went to sleep.
3. Ask the students to make up a new story of Snow White in which the evil queen gets lost and does not find Snow White.
4. List and discuss why the dwarves could have been angry at Snow White for coming to their house.

What are 2 examples of Deductive reasoning
1. Spanish is a more useful language than French. More people speak Spanish than French. The signs in public places are written in English and Spanish. There are few speakers of French in our neighborhood
2. The students at this school want to go to good colleges. The students are from homes that emphasize the importance of education. The students work diligently, even in study hall. The students get good scores on their SAT exams.

What are 2 examples of Inductive reasoning
1. Denim jeans are good pants to wear to school. Denim jeans last longer than any other pants do. Many students have three pairs of denim jeans that last the whole school year Denim is very durable for everyday wear.
2. There are several expensive cars parked on that street. Expensive cars are usually found in affluent neighborhoods. This is an affluent neighborhood. A lot of rich people live in this neighborhood.

What are 3 examples of Problem Solving
1. Attached is a list of the signs previously on display in the corridors of a high school. The school is implementing a Spanish Immersion program. Reproduce the signs for the new program.
2. The straight road between Point A and Point C runs through Point B. The distance from Point A to Point C is 190 miles. Point B is 1.5 times as far from Point C as it is from Point A. How far is it from Point C to Point B?
3. Attached is a recipe that resulted in a cake which fell when removed from the oven. Review the recipe and determine why the cake fell. Make the necessary adjustments to the recipe

What is an examples of Critical Thinking
Discuss the function of physical setting in two of the novels you studied. What is the relationship between the stories' events and the locations in which the events take place?

Tourettes Sydrome
Associated with Autism; motor tics often accompanied by
vocal outbursts or inappropriate social behavior

Epilepsy
Repeated seizures

Down Sydrome
Mental retardation, extra skin on eyelids, thickened tongue, short stature, and a tendency towards obesity

cerebral palsy
Characterized by paralysis, weakness, and lack of coordination

giftedness
Cognitive superiority and enhanced creativity

Language Disorder
Delayed ability to understand and express ideas

Emotional disturbance
1. a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time & to a marked degree that adversely affects educational performance
2. inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors (academically performing below grade level), inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers & teachers
3. inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances, a general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression, a tendency to develop physical symptoms of fears associated with personal or school problems

Learning disability
has difficulty with oral language (e.g., listening, speaking, and understanding); reading (e.g., decoding, comprehension); written language (e.g., spelling, written expression); mathematics (e.g., computation, problem solving); also may have difficulties

Autism
Developmental disability affecting social interactions, verbal/nonverbal communication, and educational performance. Generally evident before the age of 3 years.

Learning disability
Disorders that impede academic progress of people who are not mentally retarded or emotionally disturbed.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
refers to a pattern of ongoing, long-standing (chronic) behavior disorders that have 3 core symptoms:Inattention, Hyperactivity, and impulsivity

Mental retardation
Characterized by a lower than normal level of intelligence and developmental delays in specific adaptive behavior.

Communication Disorder
Individuals characterized by specific impairments in speech and/or language

What are the benefits of effective early intervention for students diagnosed as having a learning disability? (4)
1. Improved social behavior skills
2. Better pre-academic skills
3. Improved motor skills
4. Improved attention skills

Which components of a free and appropriate public education are guaranteed to disabled students by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)? (5)
1. Transition services from school to post-school activities
2. Supplementary aids and services if needed
3. Access to and progress in the general curriculum
4. Modified curriculum if needed
5. Education in the least restrictive environment

The parents of a child with disabilities are unable to agree with school professionals on the identification, assessment, and educational placement of their child.
Which parental right is guaranteed by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)?
An impartial due process hearing

Which student characteristics indicate a need for an in-depth evaluation for a hearing impairment? (4)
1. Has frequent colds, earaches, and infections
2. Is often unresponsive when spoken to
3. Uses a very loud or very soft voice when speaking
4. Frequently asks for information to be repeated

Which of the following must occur to ensure that a student is placed in the least restrictive environment in accordance with the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)? (2)
1. The student shall be given equal opportunity to participate in nonacademic or extracurricular activities.
2. The placement shall guarantee suitable access to the general core curriculum

Every student in public education is guaranteed an 'appropriate education.' For students with disabilities, this may require placement in special programs.
What basic rights does a student with a disability have regarding placement? (7)
1. Communication of placement decisions to the student's parents.
2. Determination of the student's placement at least annually and individually based on the student's Individual Education Plan (IEP).
3. Availability of a continuum of various alternative placements so the student can learn in an environment that is based on the student's individual needs.
4. Consideration of any potential harmful effects on the student or on the quality of services when selecting the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE).
5. Assurance that each placement decision is made by a group of people, including parents, who are knowledgeable about the student, the meaning of the evaluation data, and the placement options.
6. Assurance that the student is educated and otherwise participates with other students in an inclusion setting to the maximum extent appropriate.
7. Placement in the district school the student would attend unless the Individual Education Plan (IEP) requires some other arrangement.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires that an Individualized Education Program (IEP) be developed for every disabled student.
Which of the following must be included in an IEP? (4)
1. A statement exempting the student from state- and district-level assessment programs used in regular education.
2. A list of signatures of all individuals participating in the IEP meeting.
3. A list of the type and amount of related services the school will provide to enable the student to benefit from special education.
4. A statement of the student's current level of performance, including strengths and weaknesses and why special education is warranted.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) outlines 'least restrictive environment' in conjunction with 'integrated environment.'
What is the definition of the phrase 'integrated environment'?
Social and instructional inclusion of students with disabilities in classrooms with typically-developing peers.

Which of the following practices can teachers use to effectively teach students from minority groups? (4)
1. Incorporate curriculum that includes characters from various cultures
2. Relate instruction to life experiences of students
3. Allow options for students to demonstrate knowledge
4. Seat students from minority groups together

Which of the following demonstrate teacher sensitivity to multicultural issues that could cause conflict with different cultures and belief systems? (3)
1. The teacher makes students feel valued for their potential as people and helps them learn to value each other.
2. The teacher believes that all children can learn at high levels and persists in helping all children achieve success.
3. The teacher respects students as individuals with differing personal and family backgrounds, skills, talents, and interests.

What is the definition of social structure?
Political-economic system that legally prohibits movement of individuals from one social class to another based on individual merit.

Teachings based off of Muhammads teachings
Islam

Founded on the teachings of siddartha gautama
Buddhism

Believe in modern day prophets
Mormonism

Believe the bible is error free
Protestantism

What academic challenges do English language learner students often face in the classroom? (3)
1. Their opportunities to develop the language skills necessary to academic success are limited.
2. Teachers often do not understand how students' cultural traditions impact school performance.
3. The subject matter is unfamiliar so it may be difficult for them to understand.

Which of the following correctly explains why a student's level of English language proficiency affects academic success in an English-only classroom? (3)
1. Students with Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills are not yet proficient in using academic language.
2. Students tend to take seven to ten years to develop Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills.
3. Students who have developed Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills have acquired enough language to communicate in social settings.

A well-mannered, conscientious student begins to act out on a regular basis. The student begins to wear unusual clothing and associates with an entirely new peer group. The student's grades, once admirable, are slipping dramatically. The student's eyes often appear red and glassy, and the student frequently seems tired during class time. A call to the student's parents reveals that the altered behavior continues at home. The parents report that they frequently discover that money is missing. The student also receives phone calls from kids with whom the parents are not familiar. The parents are worried about their child and are unsure about what to do.
Substance Abuse

How should a teacher respond to a student who is exhibiting signs of neglect? (4)
1. Recognize the limitations of a teacher's role in a neglect situation
2. Report neglect to the proper authorities
3. Avoid making judgments about the parents or caregivers
4. Become more educated about the manifestations of neglect

What are 4 methods show sensitivity to cultural and gender differences?
1. Allow for some privacy and individuality
2. Moderate eye contact for monitoring the classroom
3. Show a student approval by smiling
4. Pause several seconds for student responses

What are 2 examples of academic language?
1. Effective learning depends on students working through a self-paced instructional program.
2. The project methodology was not consistant with the hypothesis.

How can a teacher improve communication with families whose home language is not English? (3)
1. Invite their extended families to school activities
2. Respond respectfully to parents' questions and concerns
3. Provide interpreters for parent-teacher conferences

What communication strategies are effective to use with colleagues? (4)
1. Try to attend meetings together frequently
2. Develop a common vocabulary for communication
3. Demonstrate genuine interest in others' work
4. Be careful never to take one another for granted

How can a teacher promote positive cooperation between home and school? (3)
1. Request parents to help in classroom
2. Provide feedback through telephone calls
3. Use positive reinforcement with students

Primary Resource
1. Analysis of Native American land rights in 1850
2. CD-ROM encyclopedia
3. President Kennedy's inaugural address
4. Debate between Stephen Douglas and Abraham Lincoln

Secondary Resource
1. Secretary notes from a community meeting
2. Time Magazine article discussing the colors used in
Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel artwork

Will the introduction of quality control measures increase product reliability?
Analytical Research Method

What effect does product reliability have on consumer attitudes?
Descriptive Research Method

Will incorporating job training into high school curriculum significantly reduce the dropout rate in U.S. schools?
Analytical Research Method

Which factors of product reliability affect consumer attitudes?
Analytical Research Method

Why have dropout rates been significantly higher for male students than for their female counterparts?
Descriptive Research Method

What is the current high school dropout rate in the United States?
Predictive Research Method

What are 2 uses of a Web Browser?
1. Reading responses in a news group
2. Finding information on the Internet

What are 2 uses of a Graphic Program?
1. Making informational flyers
2. Creating a student newspaper

What are 3 uses of a Spreadsheet Program?
1. Creating a floor plan of the school
2. Drawing a diagram for an experiment
3. Charting experimental data

Why is it important for teachers to know state content and performance standards? (2)
1. Individual state departments of education expect teachers to know the content of state standards so that they know what knowledge, skills, and abilities students are expected to acquire.
2. Federal law requires teachers to know the content of national and state standards under the No Child Left Behind Act.

What can be used against the teacher in an employment dispute?
Membership in organizations that subscribe to unlawful acts

How should a teacher respond to parents who ask to see their child's work folder during a parent-teacher conference?
Allow access to the folder

What action must the school take when a parent objects to certain material in a student's file?
Notify the parent of their right to a hearing if amending the record is not warranted

What condition must exist for a teacher to legally photocopy copyrighted materials?
The teacher must have received permission from the copyright owner.

How have progressive philosophies affected modern education? (3)
1. Learning is focused on accumulated knowledge
2. Learning is focused on student's needs
3. Teachers as facilitators of learning

Ellwood P. Cubberley
Supported State control of democratic school systems

Robert J. Breckenridge
Writings influenced no public funding for Catholic School

Lloyd P. Jorgenson
Revealed prejudicial side of common school movement

Bernard Bailyn
described early 20th century educators as missionaries

What are 2 historical factors led to the present organization of schools?
1. Common school movement
2. Increase in pluralism
3. Family responsibility for children's education
4. Competition between public and private sectors

Which school was Founded as a direct response to prejudice and discrimination?
Catholic Schools

which school was First established in Boston in response to Puritan parents seeking education for their sons to prepare them for leadership roles in the church and community?
Latin Grammar Schools

which school Emphasized normal everyday learning rather than classical curriculum; provided a laboratory for teacher training in model classrooms?
Normal Schools

Which school Began in New York state as a Sunday school teachers' camp; designed to teach in a fun and relaxing atmosphere; founders believed that learning was a life-long process?
Cahutauqua Institution

Which school was the Earliest form was apprenticeship in colonial America. Ben Franklin
founded the earliest formal program, the Junto, where philosophy and politics were the major areas of study?
Adult Education

Which school was Founded as an experiment in communal life to eliminate class distinctions in society through practical New Harmony
New Harmony

Which of the following methods can teachers use to identify the needs and ability levels of their students? (4)
1. Analyze grade book for attendance rates
2. View student work portfolios from the previous year
3. Administer a test to determine abnormal personality aspects
4. Study trends in past achievement tests

How can a teacher create a positive and safe learning environment? (3)
1. Adjust instructional practices to meet the diverse needs of the class
2. Provide opportunities for every student to succeed
3. Give frequent general praise for any work completed

What are 4 examples of a Student Centered Classroom?
1. Learning is internalized.
2. Individual achievement is recognized.
3. Achievement distinctions are accentuated.
4. Active learning occurs.

What are 2 examples of a Teacher Centered Classroom?
1. Dynamic learning groups are used.
2. Learning experiences are scheduled.

Which actions foster students' interpersonal skills? (3)
1. Teaching students conflict resolution skills
2. Making cooperative learning activities a regular part of class assignments
3. Quickly and consistently addressing inappropriate behaviors

Two students have consistently been very negative and aggressive towards one another. Which teacher responses might help remedy the situation? (4)
1. Provide time for problem solving
2. Remain calm
3. Be aware of own body language
4. Arrange the environment to minimize risk

How can teachers promote the importance of learning to their students? (3)
1. Provide a visual representation of progress
2. Provide a supportive climate
3. Help students to find value in their work

What are the benefits of establishing and regularly following routines in the classroom? (3)
1. Demonstrates and encourages orderly behavior from students
2. Saves time for the teacher to do administrative tasks
3. Leads to organization and on-task behavior

How do routines affect academic behavior? (2)
1. Smoother transitions
2. More effective instruction

Which teaching strategies reinforce appropriate behavior? (3)
1. Identify both appropriate and inappropriate behavior
2. Establish steps for reinforcing appropriate behavior
3. Establish and enforce consequences for inappropriate behavior

How can a teacher reinforce behavior in the classroom? (5)
1. Use positive expressions frequently
2. Give tangible items to be traded in for reinforcement
3. Remove a desired activity from the students
4. Allow students to select an activity
5. Praise the students with specific information

Which of the following factors can increase the level of student academic learning time? (2)
1. Students understanding what is to be learned
2. Ensuring high student interest in learning tasks

What can a teacher do to motivate students regarding a specific assignment? (3)
1. Encourage students to complete the assignment
2. Relate the assignment to real-life situations
3. Promote the value of accomplishing the assignment

Which factors will increase students' intrinsic motivation? (4)
1. The teacher gives constant verbal praise for simple responses.
2. The students care about a discussion topic.
3. The students participate in a team spelling bee.
4. The students set individual reading goals in a supportive environment.

Prior to the start of a test, a student glares at the teacher and says, 'I'm not doing this stupid test!'
Which of the following actions can the teacher take to effectively and positively manage corrective action? (4)
1. Debrief the student on classroom rules while the class waits quietly.
2. Allow a few moments for the student to choose the appropriate action.
3. Redirect the student by repeating the expected behavior.
4. Speak calmly and unemotionally in a flat, controlled voice.

Which methods for managing inappropriate behavior are better than verbal reprimands? (4)
1. Move closer to student
2. Make eye contact with the student
3. Redirect student when off-task
4. Provide student with simple reminder of classroom rules

Which of the following are positive interventions in resolving student problems in the classroom? (3)
1. The teacher has the student explain why behavior is unacceptable and what the consequences are if the negative behavior continues.
2. The teacher uses nonverbal cues to prompt appropriate behavior.
3. The teacher asserts authority over student.

philosophy
the study of theories of knowledge, truth, existence and morality

philosophy of education
a framework for thinking about educational issues and a guide for professional practice

theory
a set of related principles that are based on observation and are used to explain additional observations

normative philosophy
a description of the way professionals ought to practice

4 branches of philosophy
epistemology
metaphysics (ontology)
axiology
logic

epistemology
the branch of philosophy that examines questions of how we come to know what we know

metaphysics (ontology)
the branch of philosophy that considers what we know

axiology
the branch of philosophy that considers values and ethics

logic
the branches of philosophy that examines the processes of deriving valid conclusions from basic principles

4 traditional schools of philosophy
idealism
realism
pragmatism
existentialism

idealism
a traditional philosophy asserting that ideas are the only reliable form of reality

realism
a traditional philosophy suggesting that the features of the universe exist whether or not a human being is there to perceive them

pragmatism
a traditional philosophy that rejects the idea of absolute, unchanging truth, instead asserting that truth is 'what works'

existentialism
a traditional philosophy suggesting that humanity isn't part of an orderly universe; rather, individuals create their own realities

4 philosophies of education
perennialism
essentialism
progressivism
postmodernism

perennialism
an educational philosophy suggesting that nature -- including human nature --- is constant

essentialism
an educational philosophy suggesting that a critical core of knowledge and skills exists that all people should possess

progessivism
an educational philosophy emphasizing curricula that focus on real-world problem solving and individual development

postmodernism
an educational philosophy contending that many of the institutions in our society, including schools, are used by those in power to control and marginalize those who lack power

behavioral learning theories
explanations of learning that emphasize observable changes in behavior

cognitive learning theories
explanations of learning that focus on mental process

learning
a change in an individual that results from experience

stimuli
environmental conditions that activate the senses

Pavlov's work
a ringing bell was the conditioned stimulus that he used to get the dogs to salivate without the presence of meat;
the bell became a conditioned stimulus

unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus that naturally evokes a particular response

unconditioned response
a behavior that is prompted automatically by a stimulus

neutral stimuli
stimuli that have no effect on a particular response

conditioned stimulus
a previously neutral stimulus that evokes a particular response after having been paired with an unconditioned stimulus

classical conditioning
the process of repeatedly associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus in order to evoke a conditioned response

operant conditioning
the use of pleasant or unpleasant consequences to control the occurrence of behavior

Skinner Box
an apparatus developed by B.F. Skinner for observing animal behavior in experiments in operant conditioning

consequences
pleasant or unpleasant conditions that follow behaviors and affect the frequency of future behaviors

reinforcers
a pleasurable consequence that maintains or increases a behavior

primary reinforcer
food, water, or other consequence that satisfies a basic need

secondary reinforcer
a consequence that people learn to value through its association with a primary reinforcer

positive reinforcer
pleasurable consequence given to strengthen behavior

negative reinforcer
release from an unpleasant situation, given to strengthen behavior

Premack Principle
ruling stating that enjoyable activities can be used to reinforce participation in less enjoyable activities;
'Grandma's Rule'

intrinsic reinforcers
behaviors that a person enjoys engaging in for their own sake, without any other reward

extrinsic reinforcers
praise or rewards given to motivate people to engage in behavior that they might not engage in without them

punishment
unpleasant consequences used to weaken behavior

presentation punishment
an aversive stimulus following a behavior, used to decrease the chances that the behavior will occur again

aversive stimulus
an unpleasant consequence that a person tries to avoid or escape

removal punishment
withdrawal of a pleasant consequence that is reinforcing a behavior, designed to decrease the chances that the behavior will recur;
frequently used is 'Timeout'

time out
a procedure of removing a student from a situation in which misbehavior was being reinforced

shaping
the teaching of a new skill or behavior by means of reinforcement for small steps toward the desired goal

extinction
the weakening and eventual elimination of a learned behavior as reinforcement is withdrawn; example of the locked door on campus

extinction burst
the increase in levels of a behavior in the early stages of extinction

schedule of reinforcement
the frequency and predictability of reinforcement

fixed-ratio (FR) schedule
reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following a fixed number of behaviors;
example 'finish 10 problems and you can go outside';
susceptible to extinction

variable-ratio (VR)
reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following an unpredictable number of behaviors;
example is when students raise their hand .. after a period they will be called on;
resistant to extinction

fixed-interval (FI) schedule
reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following a constant amount of time;
shows that frequent short quizzes could be better than longer exams

variable-interval (VI)
reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following an unpredictable amount of time;
spot check when teacher is walking by .. students will continue to work because teacher may check them

maintenance
continuation (of behavior)

antecedent stimuli
events that precede behaviors

cues
signals as to what behaviors(s) will reinforce or punished

discrimination
perception of an response to differences in stimuli

generalization
carryover of behaviors, skills, or concepts from one setting or task to another

social learning theory
learning theory that emphasizes not only reinforcement but also the effects of cues on thought and of thought on action

modeling
imitation of others' behavior

observational learning
learning by observation and imitation of others

vicarious learning
learning based on observation of the consequences of others' behavior

self-regulation
rewarding or punishing one's own behaviors

Bandura's 4 phases of observational learning
attentional
retention
reproduction
motivational

cognitive behavior modification
procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive principles for changing one's own behavior by means of self-talk and self-instruction

deficiency needs
basic requirements for physical and psychological well-being as identified by Maslow

Maslow's two types of needs
1.) deficiency needs - love, safety, esteem, physiological
2.) growth needs - know and understand, aesthetic, self-actualization

self-actualization
a person's ability to develop his or her full potential

constructivist theories of learning
theories that state that learners must individually discover and transform complex information, checking new information against old rules and revising rules when they no longer work

cognitive apprenticeship
the process by which a learner gradually acquires expertise through interaction with an expert, either an adult or an older or more advanced peer

discovery learning
a constructivist approach to teaching in which students are encouraged to discover principles for themselves

self-regulated learners
students who have knowledge of effective learning strategies and know how to use them

meditated learning
assisted learning; an approach in which the teacher guides instruction by means of scaffolding to help students master and internalize the skill that permit higher cognitive learning

reciprocal teaching
a small-group teaching method based on principles of question generation; through instruction and modeling, teachers foster metacognitive skills primarily to improve the reading performance of students who have poor comprehension

cooperative learning
instructional approaches in which students work in small mixed-ability groups

Student Teams-Achievement Divisions (STAD)
a cooperative learning method for mixed-ability groupings involving team recognition and group responsibility for individual learning

Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC)
a comprehensive program for teaching reading and writing in the upper elementary grades; students work in four-member cooperative learning teams

Jigsaw
a cooperative learning model in which students are assigned to six-member teams to work on academic material that has been broken down into sections for each member; section is then read to each of the other members; students stay attentive and listen to each reader 'or authority' on the subject

Learning Together
a cooperative learning model in which students in four - or five- member heterogenous groups work together on assignments

Group Investigation
a cooperative learning model in which students work in small groups using cooperative inquiry, group discussion, and cooperative planning and projects, and then make presentations to the whole class on their findings; 2 to 6 members

Cooperative scripting
a study method in which students work in pairs and take turns orally summarizing sections of material to be learned

problem solving
the application of knowledge and skills to achieve certain goals

means-ends analysis
a problem solving technique that encourages identifying the goal (ends) to be attained, the current situation, and what needs to be done (means) to reduce the difference between the two conditions

Instrumental Enrichment
a thinking skills program in which students work through a series of paper-and-pencil exercises that are designed to develop various intellectual abilities

critical thinking
the ability to make rational decisions about what to do or what to believe

James Marcia's Four Identity Statuses
foreclosure
identity diffusion
moratorium
identity achievement

foreclosure
an adolescent's premature establishment of an identity based on their parents choices, not on his or her own

identity diffusion
inability to develop a clear direction or sense of self

moratorium
experimentation with occupational and ideological choices without definite commitment

identity achievement
a state of consolidation reflecting conscious, clear-cut decisions concerning occupation and ideology

psychosocial theory
a set of principles that relates social environment to psychological development

psychosocial crisis
according to Erickson, the set of critical issues that individuals must address as they pass through each of the eight life stages

Erickson's 8 Stages of Personal and Social Development
1.) Trust vs mistrust
2.) Autonomy vs doubt
3.) Initiative vs guilt
4.) Industry vs Inferiority
5.) Identity vs role confusion
6.) Intimacy vs isolation
7.) Generativity vs self-absorption
8.) Integrity vs despair

heteronomous morality
in Piaget's theory of moral development, the stage at which children think that rules are unchangeable and that breaking them leads automatically to punishment

autonomous morality
in Piaget's theory of moral development, the stage at which a person understands that people make rules and that punishment are not automatic

moral dilemmas
in Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning, hypothetical situations that require a person to consider values of right and wrong

Kohlberg's 3 Stages of Moral Reasoning
1.) Preconventional level
2.) Conventional level
3.) Postconventional level

preconventional level of morality
Stages 1 and 2 in Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning, in which individuals make moral judgments in their own interests;
punishment and obedience orientation
instrumental relativist orientation

conventional level of morality
Stages 3 and 4 in Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning, in which individuals make moral judgments in consideration of others;
good boy-good girl
law and order orientation

postconventional level of morality
Stages 5 and 6 in Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning, in which individuals make moral judgments in relation to abstract principles;
social contract orientation
universal ethical principle orientation

temperment
a set of in-born traits that organize the child's approach to the world

a free appropriate public education (FAPE)
all children, regardless of the severity of their disability, must be provided with an education appropriate to their unique needs at no cost to the parents

least restrictive environment (LRE)
children with disabilities are to be educated, to the maximum extent appropriate with students without disabilities

individualized education program (IEP)
individually tailored statement describing an educational plan for each learner with exceptionalities.
1.) present level of academic functioning
2.) annual goals
3.) educational services provided
4.) degree to which the pupil will be able to participate
5.) plans for initiating services and length of service delivery
6.) annual evaluation procedure specifying objective criteria

procedural due process
affords parents safeguards as it pertains to child's education; parents have the right to confidentiality of records; examine all records; to obtain an independent evaluation;
students parents have the right to representation by legal counsel

nondiscriminatory assessment
prior to placement, a child must be evaluated by multidisciplinary team in all areas of suspected disability by tests that are neither racially or culturally nor linguistically biased

parental participation
PL 94-142 mandates meaningful parent involvement; 'Parent Law'

personal teaching efficacy
refers to a teacher's belief that he or she can affect student learning

positive teacher expectations
refers to a teachers belief about students' ability to learn

the two major dimensions of communication
1.) content
2.) relational

Communication Function Questionnaire measure eight communication skills, name them:
1.) conversational skills
2.) referential skills
3.) ego supportive skills
4.) conflict management skills
5.) comforting skills
6.) persuasive skills
7.) narrative skills
8.) regulation

the 4 relationship stages
1.) initiating
2.) experimenting
3.) intensifying
4.) deterioration and dissolution

establishing Rules and Procedures; the 4 types
1.) Rules related to academic work
2.) Rules related to classroom conduct
3.) Rules that must be communicated your first teaching day
4.) Rules that can be communicated later; at an appropriate opportunity

What are the four most important traditions in US public school history?
1) Family was responsible for a child's education. They taught children how to read and where/how the children got education.
2) Pluralism: Children learned in a variety of settings including dame schools, private and public schools, academies, church schools, SUnday schools, libraries and lyceums.
3) In mid-ninteenth century, the public or common school formed. By 1900, elementary school enrollment was nearly universal. Secondary school was much less common: Only 10% in 1900, reaching 70% in 1940, currently 95%
4) The agreement between public and private sectors to achieve social goals. Non profits play a large roll through programs such as Head Start, tutoring, after school programs, preschools.

Chautauqua Institute
Founded by Miller/Hensen in New York as a teaching camp for Sunday School teachers. Fun, relaxed, promotes life-long learning.

Catherine Beecher
Encouraged education for women. Believed motherhood was incredibly important to America's development

Albert Shanker
Head of American Federation of teachers - union supporter

John Dewey
Ideas grounded in experience - indivizualized education based on child's skills

Maria Montesorri
Hands on manipulatives for learning, experiential learning

Linda Brown
Brown vs. Board of Education NAACP - separate but equal was unconstitutional.

Jose Angel Gutierrez
Pushed for education for chicano students. Mexican American youth organization founder.

Deborah Meier
Against state mandated tests. Teachers deserve autonomy

E.D. Hirsch
Back to Basics education, core subjects

What are the six communication variables in interpersonal relationships?
Self-concept, Self-Disclosure, immediacy, Communication style, credibility and teacher expectancy

Culturally responsive teaching
Instruction that acknowledges and accommodates cultural diversity.

Multicultural education.
A general term that describes a variety of strategies schools use to accommodate cultural differences in teaching and learning.

Assimilation
A process of socializing people so that they adopt dominant social norms and patterns of behavior.

Ethnicity
A person's ancestry; the way individuals identify themselves with the nation from which they or their ancestors came.

Cultural diversity.
The different cultures that you'll encounter in classrooms and how these cultural differences influence learning.

Culture
The knowledge, attitudes, values, customs, and behavior patterns that characterize a social group.

Maintenance language programs.
Language programs that place the greatest emphasis on using and sustaining the first language.

Immersion program.
Language program that emphasizes rapid transition to English.

English as a second language (ESL) program.
Language program that emphasizes rapid transition to English.

Transition programs.
Language programs that maintain the first language until students acquire sufficient English.