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Responsibilities of Counselors to School Communities and Individual Students It is important to remember that the primary responsibility of the counselor is to the student body and the school community as a whole. This community includes parents, teachers, the student body and even other counselors. Within this context, counselors can and should strive to address the needs of individual students who will most benefit from individual counseling, particularly as it relates to their academic development and success. The counselor's role is to assess individual students to determine if one-on-one counseling would be beneficial, and then to implement it when appropriate. If a counselor feels a student is in need of additional therapy or therapy outside of the academic context, it is recommended that the student be referred to external agencies or other appropriate services.
Criteria to Be Addressed in Individual Sessions The school counselor should try to schedule sessions at times that are least intrusive to the academic day. The counselor should also be sensitive to student nuances: for instance, some students may be more receptive after school hours than during the middle of the day. Within each session, the counselor needs to honor the particular needs of the student while developing and implementing therapeutic goals. It is important to consider a student's developmental or situational hindrances. Furthermore, the counselor should develop a rubric for assessing the success of the therapy.
Counseling Adolescents Counseling approaches and intervention strategies need to be determined and assessed within the context of developmental theory. In other words, counselors should be familiar with the different stages of development in adolescents, including the appropriate behaviors for this particular age group. Counselors may dismiss behaviors that would be unacceptable for an adult, but perfectly normal for an adolescent. Conversely, if a child is exhibiting behavior that is not typical of his or her age group, this may need to be addressed in the counseling session. Furthermore, counselors developing intervention strategies should be mindful of the range of reasonable expectations within an age group. It is important that counselors enter each session with an understanding of the age group of the student, referring to outside resources for that information if necessary.
Establishing a Rapport Between Counselor and Student Because of the importance students place on peer relationships, they are often less receptive to recommendations or inquiries from adults. It is important for the counselor to develop a relationship of trust with the student. One strategy is for the counselor to listen carefully to the student's perception of a situation in order to develop and convey an attitude of empathy. Likewise, once a counselor has researched a student's background and situation or precipitating event, it is important to refrain from developing biases or expectations based on this research alone. Listening to the student's experiences and perceptions will allow the counselor to form a more realistic and comprehensive approach to resolution. As the counselor and student develop a history of tackling a situation in tandem, the counselor will not only encounter less resistance from the student, but also will benefit from the student's collaboration.
General and Age-Specific Strategies With all age groups, it is important for the counselor to listen attentively, and to refrain from judgmental or negative behaviors or comments. With specific age groups, there are particular activities that can facilitate the establishment of a trust relationship between counselor and student. For younger children, playing and creative activities can provide a rich medium for developing rapport. Students in middle childhood and adolescence also can develop a solid relationship with a counselor by playing sports or other games. Counselors should be versed in an array of rapport-building strategies in order to apply the best strategies for each student. Other strategies include drawing, collage-making, and writing on a board. Counselors can facilitate the therapeutic benefit of these activities by isolating and discussing particular pictures or words, always remembering to be attentive and respectful to the student.
Responding to Student Resistance It is important to remember that the student has been referred to the counselor in most cases. Not only is the student not motivated to work with the counselor, but often is confused and suspicious of the purpose of the session. Counselors need to be sensitive to this apprehension by not immediately tackling the situation for which the student has been referred. One approach is to allow the student to begin talking to the counselor about an innocuous subject, such as objects in the room. This will sometimes help the student to feel more comfortable in the counseling environment, as well as to alleviate the feeling that he or she is the subject of a therapeutic spotlight.
Counseling a Self-Referral In some cases, students will refer themselves for counseling. In this scenario, the counselor should experience less resistance from the student. However, there are nonetheless legal and ethical issues to be considered. It is first important to refer to government and school regulations regarding self-referral. One of the issues to be addressed is when and how to obtain parental consent. Limits of confidentiality in counseling a minor student need to be thoroughly researched and clarified before the counseling sessions, whether it is an individual or a group session. A counselor should be cognizant of all of the considerations and ramifications of working with a student who self-refers before meeting with the student, and in fact may decline the session based on findings.
Explaining Counselor's Role to Students Counselors are responsible for explaining their role in the session. This explanation can and should serve to establish a relationship of trust and collaboration with the student. It is important for counselors to be sensitive to a student's age when explaining their role. In other words, for a younger student, the counselor might begin the discussion with by explaining that he or she wants to help the student feel better, whereas for an adolescent this type of explanation could easily be deemed condescending. For adolescent students, it might be advisable to first begin by asking the student of his perception of the goals and purposes of counseling, and then proceeding by clarifying the student's response. Counselors will often also be responsible for explaining the role of counseling to parents.
Topics Appropriate for Various Age Groups
As a part of a comprehensive counseling program that addresses specified needs, counselors should include topics that are generally relevant to particular age groups.
Some of these age-specific topics are: · For elementary students - Students in this age group are dealing with issues related to friendships, family roles, problem solving, social behaviors, success in school, expressing emotions, and self-esteem. · For middle school students - Middle school students are particularly embroiled in issues relating to body image, interpersonal relationships, social skills, conflict management, social roles, diversity issues, self-esteem, transitioning to a new school, and academic development. For high school students - As students are preparing to become adults, topics that are most relevant are career exploration and planning, dating protocol, intimate relationships, self-identity, assertiveness training, stress management, and time management. Although many of these topics overlap age groups, counselors need to be cognizant of the level of development present in the particular student group or population.
Determining Group Size and Length of Sessions Both group size and session length are primarily determined by the age and developmental level of the participants. One of the key deciding factors is the ability of certain age groups to focus on a topic for a specific period of time. Since younger elementary children have shorter attention spans, a rule of thumb for them is to have group sessions last about 20 minutes, with about 5 members in the group. Older elementary students (roughly grades 4 through 6) can meet for periods ranging from 30 to 45 minutes, in groups of 7 or so. High school students will benefit from an expanded length of session, but still will fare better in smaller groups. The ideal group size for high school students is 6 to 8, meeting for 40 to 50 minutes. If a counselor feels that a particular group could extend the recommended time or group size, he or she should refer to research regarding both the topic and the group size.
Considerations Regarding Group Size Group dynamics are very much influenced by the size of the group. There need to be enough participants to provide feedback and support as appropriate, but not such a large group that individuals are ignored or that focus becomes dissipated. In addition to consulting published standards regarding ideal group sizes for every age group, counselors can determine effective group sizes by considering the age or developmental level of the group. One important factor is the relative attention spans of the participants. The topic being addressed is also a factor. Sometimes the therapeutic strategy to be implemented will determine group size. Finally, counselors should consider the individual participants in the group, including their modes and likelihood of participation, when determining group size.
Scheduling Group Counseling Sessions It is important to remember that the responsibility of the school counselor is simultaneously for the student as well as the school community. Because of that, the counselor should work with school personnel and school schedules when developing counseling schedules. This is particularly pivotal in high school and middle school because counseling sessions that are scheduled at the same time of day will interrupt the same class repeatedly. Collaboration with teachers and other school personnel is probably the best approach; the counselor should solicit their input about the best and worst times to schedule counseling sessions, for instance by avoiding sessions on days when standardized tests are administered. Beyond that, it is always a good idea to stagger group counseling sessions, especially in the middle school or high school setting, although this may be necessary in an elementary school also, if indicated by the teachers.
Selecting Group Members
Role of Demographics While it is not always indicated for counselors to specifically focus on demographics when choosing group participants, it is nonetheless a good idea to be aware of how the demographics relate to the topics being addressed. Sometimes the referral process might result in a default group of students that is primarily one gender or one ethnicity. Although there are no definitive rules about this, it is often a good idea to include a spectrum of cultures and mix of genders in a group setting. This is true when working with all age groups, but especially so when working with adolescent students. This often allows students to address personal and social skills in a mixed group, within the controlled environment of the counseling session. Younger children may be more comfortable in a group of their own gender. Of course, if the topic relates to culture- or gender-specific topics, then the group should be comprised of student falling within the specified category.
Role of Topics Selecting group members based on topic can be approached somewhat holistically, since topics may be interrelated. However, the group members will want to experience similarities and empathy among themselves. For instance, if the topic being addressed is dealing with authority, the group may include students who stay out after curfew as well as students who are perpetually late to class. Students whose parents are divorced may relate to students who recently moved from their home town, since all of them are dealing with separation issues and disenfranchisement. Nonetheless, if students are in fact dealing with the same issues, there may be enough diversity in personal coping skills to comprise a dynamic group. In terms of age similarities, it is a good idea to have students in a group who are within the same age group or developmental level, although a small spectrum of emotional maturity can provide the interactive component that is valuable in a group setting.
Recruiting and Screening Students The primary considerations for selecting and screening students for group counseling are the willingness and capacity of the student to participate in a therapeutic group setting. Students may be self-referred, or they may be referred by parents, teachers, and other students. While self-referral indicates the student's willingness to participate, the other types of referrals indicate the need for counselors to screen students to see if they are amenable to group counseling. All students should be screened for capability to participate in a group setting, and to determine if a group counseling format would be beneficial for them. In general, the counselor should consider the parameters of the group setting, which include both speaking and listening, respecting confidentialities and differences among its members, as well as other components of the group format. Some counselors prefer to have individual meetings with potential members before the first group meeting; others devote the first meeting to information and screening.
Soliciting Participation in Group Counseling Finding appropriate members for a counseling group can be accomplished through a combination of advertising and referrals. Of course, counselors should have a profile of the groups that would be relevant and beneficial for a particular student body. This information can be obtained during conversations and other interactions with students and school staff. Often, this input will include the referral of specific students and the request for group sessions focusing on particular topics. Once the need for a group has been indicated, counselors can solicit additional members with notices in newsletters, flyers, word of mouth, or by talking with students, groups of parents, or school personnel. The counselor should specify the topic to be addressed, the philosophy and general format of group counseling, and the proposed times for the sessions.
Screening Process A good way to begin the screening process is for the counselor to give the student an overview of the group counseling format. This overview should include the purpose of the group; the roles and expectations of the members; and the role and expectations of the counselor. The counselor should provide an opportunity for the student to ask questions, and to express any concerns or anxieties he or she has about the group format. In the context of this conversation, the counselor should look for indications that the student is either likely or unlikely to be able to participate in a group setting. Some of these indications relate to the student's ability to follow the rules of the group; his or her ability to attend, participate, and contribute in the group setting; his or her emotional capability to participate; and, lastly, his or her willingness to participate.
Options for Students Initially Deemed Unsuitable for Group Counseling Students who are unsuited to the group counseling format may be referred to individual counseling. Although some students referred to individual counseling may never participate in group counseling, others may transition from individual to group counseling. For these students, the counselor will want to make a determination of readiness based on specific criteria. He or she then should communicate to parents the recommendation and the factors that indicate the student's readiness for group counseling. The intent, format, and expectations of the group setting should be distinguished from those of individual counseling. Counselors should refer to school policy regarding additional procedures to follow when transitioning a student in this manner. Also, students referred into group counseling from individual counseling should sign a consent form indicating their understanding of, readiness for, and commitment to the group setting.
Guidelines and Expectations of Group Counseling Once the members of a group are selected and brought together, at either the first meeting or a pre-meeting, the counselor should give an overview of the guidelines and expectations of group counseling. This first meeting or pre-meeting will define the individual members as a group brought together for a purpose. As a collaborative group, students can be given a presentation of the ground rules in group counseling, and can then individually sign forms of understanding and consent. These ground rules can include the importance of commitment, issues of conduct, and the importance of respect and confidentiality. It is significant that they agree to these ground rules as a group, since they will be implementing them as a group, with the counselor as facilitator. The counselor can also talk about group expectations, and allow members to voice their individual concerns and expectations.
Group Ground Rules Ground rules in a group counseling setting serve to bond the members in a unity of conduct and purpose. When reviewing ground rules, it is helpful to solicit input from the members, allowing them to participate in the establishment of the ground rules. Rules also contribute to a healthy and productive dynamic in a group setting. Lastly, rules can provide and ensure a sense of safety and trust in the counseling environment. Some typical rules which address these issues include, but are not limited to: Give respect to the counselor and other members by listening attentively and without interruption. B. willing to participate and contribute by sharing feelings and experiences. Respect the experiences, perspectives and backgrounds of the other members. Maintain confidentiality. (Although confidentiality cannot be legally mandated for group members as it is for counselors, it is nonetheless effective to have members include a commitment to confidentiality in their overall consent to the ground rules.)
Multi-Faceted Role of Group Counselor The counselor in a group setting must balance and maintain healthy and productive group dynamics. This includes attending to both the group as a whole and to the individual members. The counselor needs to be sensitive to the levels of participation within the group, ensuring fairness and eliciting contributions from all members. He or she should be available for consultation regarding any concerns, and should act as the overseer and reminder of the ground rules. Counselors should facilitate the interaction of the members toward the benefit of each of the members. This may involve working with a resistant student, or intervening when there is negative, unproductive behavior. The counselor in a group setting can encourage group dynamics, while honoring the individual needs of the members. He or she should also strive toward a more integrated and self-regulating group through encouragement and guidance.
Maintaining the Group's Focus Counselors in a group setting need to be particularly sensitive to the possibility of the group becoming distracted and losing focus on the topics and goals. Although the counselor should be flexible in order to meet the individual needs of the participants, he or she also needs to maintain the focus and progress of the group as a whole. One of the early safeguards against distraction is clear communication to the members, parents, and school staff about the purpose and goals of the group; therapeutic format; and process of resolution in a group setting. Defining and reviewing the goals and parameters of the group with participants is also helpful. It is important for counselors to be well-versed in the basic tenets of group dynamics in a therapeutic setting.
Counseling Theory and Developmental Theory in Group Counseling Since school counselors are working with students of different ages and developmental levels, they need to be sensitive to any developmental issues that are relevant to counseling. When implementing group strategies, counselors may need to refine or revise their methodology in relation to the age group, or to the developmental level of the group members. Each age group has inherent developmental crises like separation anxiety, individuation, and self-worth, and counselors need to be sensitive to these crises in their topic-based strategies. A six-year-old will have different coping strategies than a fifteen-year-old, even though the problem for both may be divorce. These age-based sensitivities should not mitigate counseling strategies, but rather should make them more effective and readily received. Some therapeutic strategies that have been successful in the school setting are cognitive therapy, reality therapy, Adlerian therapy, and SFBC.
Importance of Being Knowledgeable About the Group Topic Although a counselor will not have personal experience with every crisis treated in group therapy, it is nonetheless important for him or her to feel a sense of empathy and recognition. This allows students to feel safe, understood, and not isolated in their situation. Therefore, it is important for counselors to have a basic knowledge of the topics that will be addressed in group counseling. They should be able to discuss the processes and effects of such situations as divorce, teen parenting, stress management, poor academic performance, and peer pressure. It is also valuable to develop a cache of information and resources about particular topics that can be shared with students. Counselors can also recommend activities or anecdotes that relate to the student's situation. Combined, these not only provide the empathy of knowledge, but also can serve to assist and empower students toward resolution.
Multisensory Stimulation in Group Counseling Students exposed to multisensory stimulation are found to be more engaged, responsive, and attentive. This is particularly valuable in a group setting, since one of the inherent weaknesses is the ease with which members can become distracted. Multisensory stimuli involve the mind and senses of children and adolescents, targeting multiple intelligences. This is particularly valuable in a group, which will be comprised of unique individuals with unique coping and learning styles. These stimuli provide the group with a comprehensive, experiential mode for addressing issues. Through the use of such creative and multisensory stimuli as puppets, music, drama, and movies, counselors can generate response and participation when broaching difficult topics. An added benefit is that students will forge positive associations between the topic and the creative stimuli. Various media, such as film, or puppets for younger audiences, can present a problem in a manner that may be more palatable than a lecture.
Developing a Knowledge of and Sensitivity to Cultural Differences It is particularly common for counselors in a school setting to work with students from varied cultural and ethnic backgrounds. Knowledge of the belief systems, perspectives, and sensitivities of an array of cultures and ethnicities is invaluable when working with students from varied backgrounds, especially in a group setting. The foundation of this knowledge lies in recognition of the far-reaching influence of culture, as well as recognition of the personal biases and perceptions that the counselor might have. Counselors should be aware of how misunderstandings and miscommunications within the group could be related to cultural differences, and should work with the group to resolve these misunderstandings. In this context, students in the group can also gain an appreciation for different cultures.
Planning Sessions in Advance and Flexibility Within Sessions It is the counselor's job to maintain focus on the topic, goals, and strategies each group session. Therefore, it is important for the counselor to prepare in detail for each session. This preparation should include a list of discussion topics, planned activities, and an informal agenda. Within the grid of this agenda, counselors will often allow time and flexibility for longer group discussion, particular concerns that might arise in the session, or individual responses or behaviors that may require extra time and attention. However, because of the preplanning and the agenda, counselors can redirect the group toward activities, specific discussion topics, and the goals of that particular session, in order to maintain the focus and progress of the group. The activities and discussion topics in each session are understood as part of a larger agenda outlining the long-term goals of the group.
Beginning Sessions of Group Counseling Before tackling the topics and goals of a counseling group, facilitators should first establish the tenor of the group. In the first session or sessions, participants can become acquainted and share a bit about themselves. The counselor's role is to assist in establishing a safe environment. It is important that participants feel a sense of camaraderie with the other group members. Throughout the remainder of the sessions, they will be sharing personal insights and experiences as well as addressing possibly difficult topics. Therefore, this initial introductory period is vital in developing a close and collaborative group. During these first sessions, the counselor can review the purpose of the group, ground rules for participation, and the importance of confidentiality, all of which will serve to establish a safe and controlled environment.
Middle Sessions of Group Counseling Although particular activities will vary between groups, and especially between different age groups, there are similarities that all will share. Counselors should establish a relatively standard routine for the middle sessions, during which the group will be pursuing their goals most intensely. A good idea for each session is to include an initial greeting of the members, in order to reinforce each member's importance and contributions. Counselors can briefly review the ground rules and guidelines during the early part of the session. A review of the previous session's events, activities, and accomplishments is recommended. Counselors can then focus the group's attention on the current topic and a preplanned activity or discussion designed for that session. As the session draws to a close, counselors can briefly review the session's activities and insights, and establish a regular routine for ending the session.
Ending Sessions of Group Counseling Developing a structure for the closing sessions of group counseling require a different focus than the beginning or middle sessions. The closing sessions review accomplishments as a group and anticipate individual futures. There will necessarily be a refocus and possibly some apprehension. Counselors should announce the upcoming final session at least three meetings in advance. An important component in the final session or sessions is a review of the initial goals, and the reminder of the achievement of those goals. Counselors should take this time to empower and encourage participants to remember their newly discovered skills and insights, and to apply them to future situations. Time should be allowed for participants to express feelings and for leaders or other group members to respond to those feelings.
Components Particularly in the closing sessions, counselors should refer to a defined listing of topics and issues to be addressed, in order to facilitate a healthy transition. Although the particular modes and media may differ between ages and topic groups, the following are key components to consider when structuring a closing session:
Completing Group Meeting Evaluations In order to assess the effectiveness of the group sessions, counselors should complete an evaluation at the end of each meeting. The format of these evaluations will in large part determine the kind of information that will be returned. If counselors are looking for the group response to particular components of the sessions, such as the scheduling or the structure, a multiple-choice or graded-response format can be used. The results of these surveys will be more quantitative and focused. Another model is that of questions or open-ended sentences that ask participants how they felt about a session, such as 'my favorite part of the session was…'.These types of survey instruments can provide more qualitative information, as well as provide an ongoing profile of participant satisfaction and involvement. Counselors may also provide pre- and post-surveys to parents and school staff, as well as post-surveys to participants several weeks after the last session.
Situations Calling for Individual Counseling Instead of Group Counseling Individual counseling would be chosen over group counseling when the student's problems are severe enough that paying attention to the student takes priority over investigating or changing how the student interacts with others. When a student is in a personal crisis, if he/she has been bullied at school, if the student is working with problems that are long-standing, group work will not be helpful and may even cause harm. Students struggling with issues related to trauma or current or past abuse should not be placed in groups. When people are fragile, individual therapy is usually the best course of action as it removes the added complications of dealing with others. In general, if a student is highly resistant to the idea of group work, it may be better to avoid it. Groups are usually short term, and working against resistance or outright sabotage from highly resistant members may take all the resources of the group and leader, with no appreciable results.
Individual Counseling for Bullied Children Counseling research has shown again and again that when counseling works, it is primarily due to the strength of the counseling relationship. Establishing trust is crucial in any counseling relationship, and with children who have experienced bullying, the adult world has already let them down—trust is greatly diminished, and children are traumatized. Children who have experienced bullying need the support and encouragement of an adult who cares for them while teaching them about how to set and defend their own boundaries. In group counseling, the counselor's attention and support are distributed among all the members of the group, and a child whose self-esteem has been damaged will be less likely to connect and thrive as a group member. Bullying is part of a loop, and bullied children often need training in emotional and verbal self-defense on a one-on-one-basis to develop the skills and confidence to participate in a group.
Group Work with Children in Crisis When children have experienced the same type of crisis, group work can facilitate healing—and in some cases, the need for responsive service to a recent disaster requires group work when there aren't enough counselors to provide individual services. Children who have experienced a natural disaster, or who have all suffered a similar loss or family situation such as divorce, can be formed into a group based on their similar experience. The fact that others have been through the same experience provides validation of feelings and the opportunity to learn how to empathize with and support each other. Group leadership must be strong enough to act as a container and prevent members from becoming overwhelmed by their own feelings and the stress of the current situation. There are limitations to group work with children who have experienced trauma. Those whose boundaries have been violated in various ways may not have the ego strength or the capacity for trust to benefit from group work. Anyone who is seriously decompensating is not capable of group work. Counselors must vet potential members carefully and prepare placements in individual therapy for those too fragile for group.
Appropriate Situations for Group Work with Students Psychoeducational groups are helpful when students need to combine practical learning with more subjective experiences in the emotional realm. Groups are helpful in teaching study skills, stress or anger management techniques, and life skills such as organization and time management. Putting a group together based around a goal more concrete than 'feeling' work can do two things at once: achieve the concrete goal (such as learning a set of study skills for college entrance examinations) and give students an experience of working in a group—a skill set that can serve them in various situations all their lives. Groups helping students address cognitive-behavioral challenges like test anxiety and social skills building can maximize resources and help many students at one time. Groups are appropriate for teaching skills, and students can help each other learn. Students can bond, form friendships, and practice emotionally intelligent skills, like empathy, active listening and providing support and encouragement. Students also practice mature skills such as maintaining confidentiality, resolving conflicts in the group, and being peer mentors to each other.
Academic Advising Using a Pychoeducational Group Model Group advising is most effective with students of a similar age or grade who have similar interests. After taking a career inventory, for example, a group of students with a particular common interest could be identified and formed around the concept of career exploration in their common areas of interest. Students might pair up to investigate and report to the group on particular careers, even going so far as to determine the best course to take after high school to enter the career. Colleges, trade schools, and universities might be identified based on their study programs, financial aid opportunities, and postgraduate employment statistics. Students who are particularly interested in a certain occupational path could be encouraged to come together to study for placement exams, participate in field trips, create projects, or build portfolios for later applications. Using the energy of the group and its interests, the school counselor can take a role as facilitator and advocate, allowing students to work as a group and only stepping in to assist in conflict or 'stuckness.'
Schoolwide Assemblies Schoolwide assemblies may be a necessary response to a variety of circumstances that affect a large number of students within the student body. These kinds of circumstances can take the form of behavioral issues, tragedy, urgent new policies, or any other reason that the school as a whole is affected. When the target subject of an assembly is a sensitive topic, such as the death of a student, drugs, violence, or some other responsive matter, the counselor should speak gently and broadly, without bringing up the impacts on a specific student. School counselors should remain ethical and produce an air of safety when discussing a topic in front of the student body. Student assemblies should also be held as a gateway or informational setting in which students are reminded about paths they can use to get help when needed. Because schoolwide assemblies are generally used to open the doors for further services, clear presentation of contact information is particularly important so that students can know how to follow up.
Peer Mediation In peer mediation, students help each other resolve interpersonal problems using peaceful interventions. Peer helping programs teach students the skills that build character education; empathy, integrity, respect, and honesty are pieces of the constellation that make up good character. In peer mediation, students learn how to listen empathically, communicate respectfully, handle difficult emotions, and solve problems. Peer mediation is a group process requiring more than two people. Conflict resolution is the primary purpose of peer mediation, and peer mediation programs have been shown to reduce school violence. Those who participate in peer helping programs are developing deep areas of emotional learning that too often go ignored in education—making them better citizens, more responsible family members and friends, and stronger, more caring human beings. Aside from the great good of building a peaceful, accepting school community and keeping each other safe, they are learning skills that will serve them anywhere they go in life.
Piaget's Theories of Development of Students in Early Childhood According to Piaget, students in early childhood (the years between 2 and 6, spanning preschool to kindergarten) generally are incapable of grasping abstract concepts, such as those dealing with time and space. They are developing motor skills, usually through play, as well as language skills and the ability to imitate events. These skills will grow and develop during the early childhood years, which will be reflected in improved use of language, increased motor skills, and the appearance of more concreteness in their drawings. During this time, children are egocentric; however, they are also developing social skills as well as the ability to regulate some of their own emotional responses. Counselors will be well served to engage a child's imaginative skills in the session, as well as to consider some of the theoretical concepts of childhood experts like Piaget.
Carl Rogers's Contribution to Counseling Rogerian therapy assumes that counseling clients become healthier when therapists provide them with human acceptance rather than 'expert' guidance. Earlier psychotherapy saw the client as someone to be acted upon: Rogers used the therapeutic relationship to create a medium of unconditional positive regard. Therapists use empathy (or empathic understanding) to reach out to and nurture clients and teach self-acceptance. Rogers believed that therapists should be as transparent or genuine as possible; a departure from earlier ideas of therapy that positioned the therapist as unknowable, unflappable, and an expert on the client's 'problem.' Rogerian therapy takes the client as the expert on him/herself, and counselors are careful not to provide interpretation, advice, or didactic training but to simply be there with the client, attending to the growing relationship, considered the central place of healing in client-centered therapy. In Rogerian counseling, therapists teach clients to lead the process, asking perhaps for the first time in their lives, 'What do <i>I</i> want? What matters to <i>me</i>?' Rogerian therapists model genuineness and congruence in their relationships with clients, who, it may be argued, suffered from a lack of congruence in early family life that perpetuates mental suffering in adult life.
Erik Erikson's Stages of Early Childhood Development In Erikson's theoretical paradigm, the years of early childhood development are defined by a series of crises which result in positive or maladaptive behaviors. Each developmental stage is preceded by a crisis that ideally is resolved through positive development of skills and behaviors. For instance, ego development may be prompted by the crisis of self-promotion being perceived as counter to the obligation to others: that is, the drive to grow and develop being tempered by a sense of guilt. Refining the balance between these two directives (incorporating self-worth, imagination and sometimes gender) contributes to the child's self-discovery. Counselors should encourage students to explore positive behaviors or actions that may be out of the student's normal realm, in the interest of developing new skills. In addition, increases in language and motor skills tends to encourage self-promotion and self-discovery. Opportunities for developing these skills should be seized in the counseling setting.
Play-Time Setting For children between the ages of 2 and 6, play is an integral part of development. Children often express emotions, describe events, and project their desires in a play setting. In the counseling session, a good strategy is for the counselor to interact with the child in play-time settings, using such manipulatives as dolls, toys, puppets, art projects, or other favorites. The play-time setting can be a wonderful opportunity for children to explore not only their environment, but also their own capabilities and skills. The counseling session will be best served if the child is allowed sufficient and reasonable latitude for exploring the boundaries of self-discovery, self-confidence, and emotional self-regulation. The play setting provides an environment for developing and regulating skills and behaviors. Counselors can provide such media as dolls, animals, art supplies, and animals, through which children can express themselves.
Developmental Stage of Middle Childhood Middle childhood, generally associated with the ages between 7 and 11, is most easily distinguished by the ability to think logically, read and write more skillfully, and mentally reverse actions. While they are still unable to grasp many abstract ideas, students in this age group are nonetheless increasingly able to manipulate concrete information. They are able to generalize about their actions or their environment based on this information. The development of logical thinking allows children in this age group to interact more cooperatively, in part because they are more able to recognize intentionality and are becoming less egocentric. Counselors working with this age group can use such strategies as exploration, manipulation of information, and action. Sessions are best served if the counselor remains aware that students in this age group are generally able to reason logically, based on concrete information. For this reason, middle childhood is often called the concrete operational stage.
Erik Erikson's 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development Each of Erik Erikson's eight developmental stages contains a psychosocial crisis, the positive resolution of which results in attainment of a basic virtue. Erikson's theory posits that people move through stages in order, with each stage being resolved positively or negatively. The more stages whose outcomes are healthy, the healthier the personality. The school ages (between 5 and 12 and 12 and 18) are stages of Industry versus Inferiority and Identity versus Role Confusion. Adolescence is characterized by the identity crisis, in which students explore and create a unique self. Although some developmental stages may not be positively resolved the first time around, Eriksonian theory says that they can be returned to later in life and successfully worked through.
Psychosocial Crisis - Basic Virtue - Age Trust vs. Mistrust - Hope - 0-1.5 years old Autonomy vs. Shame - Will - 1.5-3 years old Initiative vs. Guilt - Purpose - 3-5 years old Industry vs. Inferiority - Competency - 5-12 years old Identity vs. Role Confusion - Fidelity - 12-18 years old Intimacy vs. Isolation - Love - 18-40 years old Generativity vs. Stagnation - Care - 40-65 years old Ego Integrity vs. Despair - Wisdom - 65+ years old
B. F. Skinner's Behavior Modification Theory Skinner believed that behavior was created and reinforced by the environment. In his theory of operant conditioning, a stimulus generates a response, and behavior is learned by experiencing the outcome of one's behavior as positive or negative. Behaviors that create an unpleasant outcome (punishment) are avoided, and those creating a pleasant outcome (reward) are repeated. Behavior can be reinforced or extinguished by applying different outcomes, and the challenge is to discover why an outcome that one person might find rewarding (recognition by the teacher in front of the whole class) might be a punishment for someone else. In behavior modification, reinforcements may be positive or negative, meaning that the reinforcement may occur after the response (positive reinforcement) or may be taken away after the response (negative reinforcement). For example, if a child misbehaves while playing a game, he/she may be put in time-out. Removing the child from the game is a negative reinforcement and should diminish the misbehavior. On the other hand, if the misbehavior goes unchallenged and the child wins the game, the misbehavior would be positively reinforced by winning. Skinner's model also posits that behaviors can be increased or decreased by planned repetition, or schedules of reinforcement.
Robert Havighurst's Theory of Psychosocial Development Like Erikson, Robert Havighurst identified stages of development based on chronological age and the resolution of specific developmental tasks throughout the life span. Havighurst proposed a six-stage model of human development:
Tasks: Infancy/early childhood, age birth to 6 years—learning to crawl, talk, and walk; being potty trained, knowing gender Middle childhood, age 6 to 12—learning social roles, values, morality, and relational skills; learning about one's self; becoming independent. Adolescence, age 13 to 18—growing independence, handling physical changes of puberty and sexuality, and beginning to work Early adulthood, age 19 to 30—becoming a mate, a spouse, and/or a parent; finding an occupation; becoming socially responsible Middle age, age 30 to 60—finding satisfaction at work, exploring outside interests (hobbies), experiencing the start of aging, and caring for parents Later maturity, age 60+—changing living situations, experiencing and coping with the physical changes of aging, and retiring and handling the changes of income and social life that retirement brings.
Sigmund Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development Freud's three parts of the personality, which drive behavior, he labeled id, ego, and superego. The id, or pleasure principle, is primitive and unconcerned with morality or rationality. The ego, logical and stable, is concerned with higher thought processes. The superego contains or inhibits antisocial behavior.
Stages of Psychosexual Development: Oral, birth to 1 year—Everything goes into the mouth! The child gets primary satisfaction from biting, chewing, and sucking. Frustration at this stage may cause overeating or smoking habits, nail biting, or talking too much. Anal, age 1 to 3 years—The primary focus is on potty training. Harsh parental attitudes around toileting may cause children to grow up overinhibited and obsessed with cleanliness: permissive parenting can create messy, sloppy, 'over-expressive' adults. Phallic, age 3 to 6 years—Freud identified two complexes that he believed accompanied children's growing awareness of the opposite sex and sexual feelings. The Oedipus Complex and the Electra Complex, he thought, defined the attraction children felt for the other-gendered parent. Latent, age 6 to 11 years—The superego reigns: children learn to delay gratification. Friendships and peer groups gain importance. Sexuality temporarily recedes. Genital, age 11 to 18—With puberty, sexuality reassumes its importance in the life cycle and people begin to engage in mature sexual relationships.
Positive Feedback for Students in Middle Childhood Middle childhood is distinguished by a developing, yet often fragile sense of competency. This sense of competency is particularly dependent on external feedback, from friends, family, and authority figures. A sense of competency is also encouraged by the student's own success in accomplishing increasingly challenging tasks, though it can also be discouraged by failure. Counselors working with this age group need to be sensitive to this fragility, and respond by providing manageable tasks that the student is more likely to succeed in. Positive, encouraging feedback is also very beneficial to students in this age group. Both positive feedback and opportunities for success provide valuable buffers against the development of feelings of inadequacy in students in middle childhood, including self-fulfilling behaviors that validate a sense of incompetence and failure.
Encouraging Peer Relationships for Middle Childhood Students During this time of competency development, peer interaction is particularly important for the student in middle childhood for a number of reasons. Not only is peer feedback important, but peer interaction provides an opportunity for students to see their peers in a similar balance of success and failure, which validates their position and allows for the development of empathy for others' positions. Likewise, students in this age group develop a sense of understanding and tolerance for differing appearances and behaviors through healthy peer interaction. A counselor can provide opportunities for peer interaction by holding group counseling sessions, as well as by encouraging healthy friendships for students in this age group. Often, significant friendships are formed. These friendships can be pivotal to the development of a student's sense of self-competency and significance among their peers.
Characteristics of the Stages of Adolescence Adolescence is a time of breakthrough transition between childhood and adulthood, and is generally divided into three sub-stages. Although the stages are very individualized, the years between ages 11 to 14 are usually called adolescence, 15 to 18 middle adolescence, and 18 and above late adolescence. The accomplishments realized during these three stages affect physical appearance, social interaction, and thinking processes. The physical changes are known collectively as puberty. Students in this age group develop a more comprehensive understanding of social roles and relationships. Furthermore, thinking processes evolve from concrete to formal, resulting in an increased ability to think abstractly. Counselors working with this age group need to be mindful of both the stage at which a student is operating and the next phase of development, so that they can provide opportunities for that development.
Therapeutic Strategies for Working with Adolescents Adolescent students are increasingly able to apply abstract thinking to possible solutions and scenarios of situations. Counselors working with this age group can take advantage of this abstract thinking by soliciting the student's collaboration in generating and implementing solutions to problems. The beginning of this process could be asking a student to view a situation differently, allowing for a larger spectrum of possible solutions. Adolescent students are also able to think reflectively, allowing for a better sense of responsibility for actions. Students in this age group are also increasingly egocentric and less dependent on external feedback, sometimes resulting in reckless behavior. They are more self-conscious, particularly with students of their age group. Counselors are best served by facilitating the student's ability to balance these feelings with increased social awareness and abstract thinking skills. Counselors can also provide students in this age group with opportunities for the development and implementation of alternate approaches to problem solving.
Effects of Puberty on Adolescent Students The onset and progress of puberty complements and often perpetuates role confusion for the adolescent student. Adolescence is a pivotal time, in which students refine self-concepts of worth, value in the larger society, and life goals. This self-definition is often validated by peer interaction. The counselor should work with students in this age group by encouraging them to develop goals and values of their own, not necessarily those of their peer group. Counselors can assist students in developing their own senses of identity and worth, separate from social cliques or idolized hero symbols. Students in this age group begin to understand that their actions and beliefs form an integral part of their role and their value system. Counselors can positively facilitate this connection when working with adolescents. It is important that counselors endorse the idea of the worth and significance of every individual.
Peer Relationships for Adolescent Students Adolescent students are simultaneously developing a sense of self-worth and self-identity and developing close ties with their peer groups. It is important for the counselor to assist the student in balancing the significance of peer relationships with the evolution of his or her own self-definition. Students in the adolescent age group often develop a sense of ethnic identity before they develop a sense of self-identity. While the role of a peer group can bolster and validate a student's ethnic or cultural identity, it is also important for the student to develop personal and individual goals. Counselors can work with adolescent students to help them identify personal goals as well as ideas and perceptions that diverge from the group identity. The influence of community beliefs and behaviors can hinder the development of individuality. Nonetheless, because peer relationships are very important to adolescents, counselors should also encourage and endorse healthy relationships.
Benefits of Establishing a Relationship over a Number of Counseling Sessions Foremost in the school counseling model is the establishment of a trust relationship between counselor and student. Trust and cooperation sometimes needs to be established over a period of several visits, and is augmented by a strict policy of confidentiality by the counselor, which further contributes to the perception of a safe environment. The process of identifying and addressing key or underlying issues can be much more productive when the relationship between the counselor and student is fully established over a number of sessions. An added benefit of numerous sessions can be the student's increased receptiveness to the counselor's recommendations.
Contributing to Academic Development in Classrooms Since school counselors are primarily concerned with personal issues that affect academic performance, they are often expected to devote a percentage of their time to developing programs that deliver guidance and instruction to all students. Incorporated in these programs are strategies that address such topics as academic performance, career planning, and social skills. Counselors may also be asked to contribute to curriculum implementation. School counselors are expected to contribute significant resources to teaching. Although the guidelines for counselor contributions to curriculum implementation may differ between schools, there are generally understood percentages, based on age groups. In elementary school settings, 35 to 45 percent of the counseling program should be devoted to curriculum implementation. In the middle school milieu, the percentage is 25 to 35 percent. High schools generally expect 15 to 25 percent of the counseling program to be devoted to curriculum implementation.
Counselors as Teachers School counselors can have a positive influence on classroom instruction, specifically in the areas of personal and social growth related to academic performance. Although in the past guidance counseling was often an added role for teachers, students are now able to benefit from the expertise of trained guidance counselors, both in and out of the classroom environment. One of the benchmark criteria for classroom instruction by school counselors is empowering students to be productive members of society. Throughout their school years, counselors can assist students in such areas as study skills, time management, social skills, and career planning. The American School Counselor Association (ASCA) is a strong proponent of school counselors contributing their expertise to the classroom environment. Counselors can also assist students with preparation for standard-based testing and other academic goals set by the school.
Classroom Guidance
Benefits The benefits of classroom guidance are found to be extraordinary and exponential. Results show that students who have experienced classroom guidance are significantly more successful academically and socially than those who have not had classroom guidance. This seems to be the case across the board, regardless of school district or even geographic area. In terms of academic success, these students fare noticeably better in attendance, test success, and overall grade-point average. Socially, their in-class behaviors improve markedly, and they are better able to cope with personal issues. Finally, students who have had the benefit of classroom guidance are more likely to attend college and to participate in career planning.
Assessing Effectiveness
As with any counseling strategy, it is important to both qualitatively and quantitatively assess the success of classroom guidance. It is important to establish a rubric that includes such criteria as grades, test scores, and graduation rates. Both pre- and post-intervention surveys are recommended. There can also be a qualitative appraisal of the effectiveness of intervention strategies in the classroom, delineating changes in behavior or classroom tenor. Note that demographic information can be valuable in assessing classroom strategies, but that it should not be included in pre- or post- intervention surveys. In other words, data gathering (grades, etc.) needs to be free of demographic categories, whereas ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status and other demographics may be included on final evaluative reports. A significant added caution is that all data gathered should be confidential, with little or no reference to identifiable specifics.
Student Response Evaluation Methodology for Measuring Content Counselors may want to assess student perceptions and student responses in order to qualitatively evaluate the effectiveness of classroom guidance content. The approach should be informal, gearing the evaluation in a way that is not readily perceived as an assessment. Younger children may respond well to a fill-in-the-blank cartoon; older students may be able to write or complete narratives that allow them to express their feelings about academic success, their role in the classroom or society, or other relevant perceptions. Other recommendations include scaled devices to self-report feelings, or another spectrum-like instrument, so long as they are user-friendly and informal. Counselors will generally want to assess the effect of classroom strategies on behavior, motivation, increased coping skills, and interest in planning. As with quantitative assessments, these more informal qualitative assessments should be administered both pre- and post-intervention, to more effectively assess the effect of the interventions.
Student Response Evaluation Methodology for Measuring Process Process evaluation is necessarily more focused and formal, since it is administered to solicit feedback on specific components of the classroom guidance strategies. This type of evaluation is particularly valuable when developing or introducing a new strategy, since it provides a kind of rating system to assess the value of the strategy. The format for this type of evaluation should be more formal and quantitative than an evaluation of content acquisition. Surveys can be administered with rating systems, using terms like extremely helpful, helpful, not helpful, etc. It is also a good idea to include a comments section that will provide qualifiers for the rated responses. In other words, if a strategy was not particularly well received, what about it could be changed, if anything? This type of evaluation is often administered during the first classroom sessions using a strategy, providing valuable feedback for refining and revising the strategy in subsequent class
Adhering to an Overall Theory of Counseling According to the tenets of an overarching theory of counseling. School counselors should be familiar with a number of theorists and models, in order to select one that is applicable to the school setting. Human development theories can serve as a viable foundation for many program designs, as can peripheral models of developmental phases within age groups. However, not all counseling sessions or students will necessarily be well served by same theoretical paradigm, so counselors should be watchful that a particular approach will address the situation or student group appropriately. Counselors should consider age levels and other defining factors in each counseling situation.
Sequential Nature of Strategies Based on Developmental Stages Counselors need to be cognizant of developmental stages as they implement strategies for different age groups and developmental levels. A recommended approach is to dovetail a particular developmental theory with sequential task order as it is standardized in the K-12 curriculum. Certain learned life skills and levels of awareness may be negated if a student encounters significant life changes after the strategy is implemented, or if the strategy is implemented too early. By incorporating the K-12 model with the particular developmental theory, counselors can build a comprehensive model of guidance that introduces sequential skills in a meaningful order. It is important for counselors to be aware of students' developmental level before introducing a task or awareness that is beyond the student's capability or understanding. A good reference is the Adlerian-based framework of five key stages:
Delivering Curriculum Through Consultation School counselors are in the valuable position of liaison between students and school staff. They work with students on personal and academic issues, and collaborate with school personnel on appropriate strategies to facilitate student learning and development. Although counselors may directly design curriculum or deliver guidance in a classroom setting, often they will act as consultants to school staff in curriculum design, program development, or other related issues. Collaboration seems to work best when teachers follow a standardized curriculum and counselors solicit and assess student feedback. The counselors will advise the teachers, who will in turn implement the curricular changes. Counselors can infuse personal guidance and development into standardized curriculum to create a much richer program for students.
Delivering Curriculum Through Collaboration In some cases, the best model for curriculum delivery that incorporates counseling guidelines is a partnership between the counselor and teacher. The particular value of this model lies in the fact that each partner is able to contribute his or her expertise in curriculum delivery. An example of this is teaching social skills through role playing, which can be designed around a historical setting. In this particular model, the counselor would contribute a set of guidelines for social skills, based on the agea and developmental levels of the students. A history teacher would plan the lesson around the historical period indicated by the grade level, and a drama teacher could contribute expertise regarding performance and role playing. This collaboration would culminate in a lesson addressing different modes of learning, while delivering curriculum and honoring counseling guidelines.
Delivering Curriculum Through Direct Teaching Counselors who work according to the direct-teaching model function much like regular instructors, although they deliver a different type of information. While standard instruction focuses on information-based academic areas, direct teaching by school counselors focuses on life and social skills. Referring to appropriate topics for each age and grade level, counselors can plan and deliver the lessons that are most useful for specific developmental levels. Elementary students might benefit from a lesson on friendship or independence, while middle school students may need lessons on anger management, conflict resolution, or stress management. For high school students, these lessons could expand to incorporate planning for the future. Some topics under this umbrella could be college preparation skills, career planning, and goal setting. Other topics appropriate for high school students fall in the categories of relationships and responsibility.
Delivering Curriculum That Addresses Career Planning and Conflict Resolution One of the qualities that differentiates school counselors from teachers is their training and knowledge base, both in areas pertinent to school-age children and in appropriate expectations for each age and grade level. Although conflict resolution is a valuable skill to learn at any age, the delivery method and context will differ greatly between age levels. Counselors are particularly knowledgeable about this. One example of this is teaching young children how to get along with their friends through a puppet lesson; for high school students, an example is role-playing to address relationships with parents. It is important that high school students be given a wealth of information about career and college planning, which is an area of expertise for school counselors. Counselors can talk to high school students about setting goals, researching options, and planning for the future.
Role of Seating Arrangements in Classroom Guidance Lessons Seating arrangements can be very important in establishing tone and expectation, as well as in contributing to the efficacy of a guidance lesson in the classroom. Counselors can choose other seating arrangements that are most conducive to the planned activity or lesson. Just the process of rearranging the established seating in a classroom can signal a change in the group dynamic. If students are asked to break into small groups, the expectation is that group discussion will occur. Counselors can implement this seating arrangement to address interpersonal skills. An added benefit to this kind of seating arrangement is that student groups can address different topics. Conversely, if the activity is one that requires the group of students to listen to the counselor, the chairs and desks would all face the front of the classroom.
Implications of Various Types of Seating Arrangements Two key areas influenced by seating arrangements are formality and communication, specifically whether communication is one-sided or open and interactive. At one end of this spectrum is an arrangement in which seats are all facing one direction, toward a speaker or screen. This arrangement inherently discourages interaction, and implies one-way communication by the person or event at the front of the room. At the other end of the spectrum is an arrangement of small groups, in which the participants face each other. This arrangement allows for a great deal of interpersonal dialogue, and relegates the counselor to the role of facilitator. The gradations in between include U-shaped seating, which encourages discussion with a speaker; seats in a circle, which encourages discussion without a speaker; and seating around a table. Counselors should consider how much participation, if any, is appropriate for a given session when looking at seating arrangements.
Encouraging Positive Perception of Role Among School Teachers School counselors run the risk of being perceived as disruptive and counter-productive to the class. One of the ways to mitigate this negative perception, besides conversation and collaboration with teachers, is to understand and respect certain aspects of the classroom dynamic. Particularly when working with younger children, maintaining routine is important to the continuity of the class. The counselor should strive for a role that is complementary and not disruptive. It is also important for counselors to understand and respect the established rules and behavior standards in classrooms. By recognizing that classroom dynamics have been established and providing a continuum, counselors can fulfill the role of facilitator and gain the respect and trust of teachers and other school staff.
Mitigating Classroom Disturbances Managing classroom tone and behavior is best accomplished by developing appropriate lessons and incorporating dynamic content, vocal and body signals in lesson delivery. It is important to develop lesson plans that are challenging yet manageable for the age and developmental level of the students. In addition, counselors can incorporate words of encouragement and validation in lessons, giving students a sense of connection to the classroom discussion and activities. Counselors can add a bit of humor to maintain interest and to pique students' creativity. In addition, utilizing changes in voice pitch, moving around the room, and making eye contact with different students can add to a counselor's ability to manage the tenor of a classroom. Not only does this contribute to the credibility of counselors in the classroom, but also greatly improves the efficacy of the lesson.
Role of Smooth Lesson Development Giving students not only interesting and informative classroom content is another pivotal factor in mitigating the occurrences and opportunity for classroom disturbance. It is important for counselors to provide a consistent flow of content and interaction with students in order to keep the class focused on the lesson at hand and away from any possible distractions. This consistent flow also provides a standard backdrop of activity, so that any distracting activities are easily noticed; whereas if a lesson includes lulls or unfocused time, distractions can not only occur more easily, but also can occur relatively unnoticed and pave the way for increased distractive activities. Practices for developing sufficient classroom content include good preparation as well as familiarity with the lesson content. During the lesson, no matter how well planned, the counselor should continue to be watchful for any classroom disturbance, and should bring students back into focus as appropriate.
Addressing Classroom Disturbances When There Are Extraneous Factors If a counselor feels that a classroom disturbance is rooted in a relationship outside of the classroom or the personal issues of one student, he or she may be able to restore the learning environment in the classroom and provide empathy at the same time. In the process of reminding a student or students to support the classroom learning environment, counselors may discover that there are underlying issues feeding the disturbance. It is important to approach each situation from a position of mutual respect and group consideration, so as to not be perceived as an unsympathetic, top-down authority. On the contrary, a counselor wants to be perceived as a knowledgeable person whose concern is the well-being of all students. A counselor can serve as a sounding board and resource expert for students who are experiencing problems that interfere with their learning experience.
Addressing Individual Discipline Issues In order to manage with empathy, a counselor should maintain his or her role as authority while conveying a message of accessibility and expertise. When first approaching students, counselors should try to establish a kind of partnership, allowing students to participate in addressing issues that are disruptive to their learning environment. Students who feel they can participate in this resolution are less likely to feel isolated and singled out. However, counselors need to maintain the students' respect for the counselor's role. Not only does this prevent disruptions from becoming more pronounced, it also serves to give students confidence in the counselor's expertise. In the process of working with a disruptive student, counselors can suggest to the student underlying problems that may be fueling the disruption, providing an effective, holistic response to a classroom disturbance.
Addressing Attention-Seeking Behavior Because of the When a student exhibits attention-seeking behavior, it is important that counselors do not reward the behavior with undue attention while disciplining the student. Counselors can develop consistent consequences for disruptive, attention-seeking behavior, and make these consequences known to students when first beginning work with them. Counselors may want to work with teachers and other staff to develop and communicate these consequences to students. Consequences should be directly related and proportional to the behavior. The effect of implementing these consequences should validate a perception that the counselors and teachers are interested in ensuring a calm and productive classroom environment for all students. Disciplinary actions should be free of anger or other emotional volatility. It is also important for counselors to remain objective, and to not infuse personal or moral assessments into their discipline. All of this will serve to downplay and neutralize attention-seeking behaviors in the classroom.
Expectations for Students A counselor should set high expectations regarding students. However, it is important for the counselor to remember that every student is different and that expectations should be set accordingly. One of the first considerations to take is the student's developmental level. A counselor needs to be aware if the student has any learning disabilities or is developmentally slow. Another factor to consider is the instructional level for the students. Expectations should not be set so high that they go beyond the instructional level. A kindergartener cannot be expected to perform on the same level as a sixth grader. The opposite is also true; expectations should not be set too low that the students will be performing below grade level and unmotivated to achieve anything higher than that.
Awareness of National Perspective Concerning Education It is vital that counselors are aware of the national perspective concerning education. They need to know what is expected of them, their staff, and their school. Counselors should know what the expectations are and make sure they are trying everything to meet those standards. The nation has certain goals that they expect schools to achieve, and counselors need to know what is expected of them and ensure their school is moving in that direction. When a counselor knows what the national expectation is, they can look at their school and ask whether they have the means to achieve those expectations. If they do not then they will know what their educational needs are and find the means to achieve those goals.
Selecting a Conflict Management Technique In most cases, when a counselor is deciding which technique is the most appropriate to resolve conflict, they will choose a contingency approach, meaning that they choose the technique based on the nature of the situation. However, a counselor should also consider the individual personal needs of the staff when selecting a conflict management technique. Other important factors to consider are the people involved in the conflict, how serious the situation is to them, the type and intensity of the conflict, and the authority that the individuals possess. A counselor is likely to encounter several different types of conflicts and therefore there will be a number of alternative techniques from which to choose. One technique will not be suitable in all situations.
Gaining Support for Change There are certain groups that will be affected the most when there is change: the faculty, the students, the parents, the school board, the counselor's superiors, and the state department of public instruction. These groups can also provide the most support or the most resistance to change. Counselors must remember that every group will have their opinions, and the most professional thing to do is respect, listen, and accept those opinions, even if they are not agreed upon. One of the most important groups a counselor needs to consider during the change process is the faculty. It is crucial to get the faculty involved, because if the faculty does not understand why there needs to be a change, there will be less support, and in return, an implementation of a new program might not be successful.
Adoption of an Innovation The first stage a counselor will go through is the awareness stage, which is becoming aware of a new innovation, but not having enough information about it. Many times a counselor may not even have a strong enough interest to find out more information about the subject. During the interest stage, a counselor is beginning to show signs of wanting to gather more information, and may even begin to develop negative or positive feelings. At the mental stage, the counselor has decided this is something worth trying and is evaluating the innovation and deciding how it will be implemented. They may also ask respected members of the school community to assess it. During the trial stage, the innovation is implemented on a limited basis. Next is the adoption stage, the point when the innovation is implemented fully. The last stage is the integration stage, in which the innovation has become a routine.
Use of Referent Influence to Change a Person's Behavior If a counselor possesses a referent influence, this means others are able to identify with the counselor as a person. Certain characteristics that others can identify with are a strong character, an outspoken personality, and a compelling leadership style. Characteristics like these may enable a counselor to gain cooperation from others even if teachers, parents and students question the decisions made by the counselor. However, there are no particular character traits that have a positive impact on everyone. While some groups respond positively to certain traits, others may view them as a sign of weak leadership. Another issue with referent influence is that if a counselor is in a position of leadership, their authenticity has already been established; if certain traits are not there, the probability of them developing is small.
Use of Reward Influence to Change a Person's Behavior A counselor is said to have reward influence when he or she provides incentives for individuals who act and obey the rules of the program. One issue with this type of influence it that a counselor may not have enough rewards to be able to distribute equally. There may occasionally be a time when rewards may be offered to an individual or group without the same reward being distributed to others. This may seem like preferential treatment, which is not viewed favorably in the education field. Another problem that may arise is that the counselor may receive very little reward to give from the school board and other bureaucratic agencies. Although these problems may occur, a counselor can develop their own unique rewards. These rewards can include a free period, an additional lunch break, or support for a new activity a teacher wants to implement.
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