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Effective Operation of Data-Driven Counseling Programs Counselors may find that many counseling programs or other student services models are data driven, meaning that statistics are routinely collected and used as the basis for institutional decisions. Counselors may discover that either the data being generated is incomplete, or that it is being organized and presented in a manner that does not reveal pertinent information about particular student issues. Data may describe the entire student body without focusing on groups of students in need. Counselors can apply system analysis to the data system with the goal of isolating the student needs that can be addressed by the counseling program. When the right students are placed at the center of the system, data regarding school, family, and community becomes more relevant. School counselors can also view the entire system, including the subsystems and the interconnectedness of those systems.
Benefits of Holistic Counseling in Systemic, Data-Driven Programs It is understood that the benefits of a data-driven counseling program include quantifiable accountability and assessment of professional review organizations. The ASCA describes these programs as clearly defined and sequential. They can also offer a holistic, comprehensive assessment of individual students. Counselors can combine the systemic overview and the needs of individual students by creating a data collection system that promotes holistic development in students. This includes nurturing individual qualities in students, and cultivating the particular goals and skills identified in the data. Using the data-driven system for the implementation of the program, counselors can partner with school members to develop a comprehensive program that identifies the needs of individual students and the student body as a whole. This type of program will help the students by giving them the confidence and leadership to pursue their dreams.
Promotion of Social Justice in School Systems A campus that endorses and supports social justice does not differentiate on the basis of culture, race, economic status, special needs, sexual orientation or gender, religious background, appearance, or primary language. Counselors can encourage this kind of campus through their work with individual students, and by working with the particularities of the data system. All members of the community will expand their commitment to social justice and educational equity when the systemic data-driven approach is initiated at the school, which will increase the probability of all students having equal opportunities within the school counseling program. The counseling program in particular is a prime area in which to model equal access to resources by advocating for all students with no attention to personal characteristics that define each student. By promoting social justice, campuses provide a model for the surrounding community.
School Mission Statement Counselors should refer to the school's mission statement when developing or revising programs or data systems. A mission statement represents the basic tenets, philosophies, and goals of the school as a whole, which should be represented appropriately in its programs and practices. The mission statement can assist counselors in the development of programs or outreach efforts, so that the overall direction and mission of the school can be incorporated into the rationale for the proposals. Counselors may also be in a position to collaborate with school officials in developing or revising a mission statement, possibly to better serve a diverse population and/or the surrounding community. The statement should embody a collective result for all students, and should provide a clear and concise focus that will frame future program development and evaluation.
Systemic Approach
Assessment When developing assessment methods for a systemic approach, counselors may first want to refer to existing data from school and district databases as well as adequate yearly progress (AYP) reports for a baseline representation of academic achievement or other pertinent information. Qualitative assessment from focus groups, interviews, and observations can provide a profile of key areas to be addressed. Counselors can then glean a basic understanding of what influences the access to resources and the academic achievement of students. Counselors may then want to choose the best format for assessment, incorporating best methods for garnering information, most comprehensive participation, and best feedback. They will want to look at those specific areas that will provide the clearest and most comprehensive picture of assessment of the program. Once the data is synthesized into a rubric, or other assessment vehicle, counselors can identify the students' needs more clearly.
Goals Counselors developing a systemic approach to counseling and assessment should first refer to the goals identified by the school, district, state and federal levels, so that the quantitative data can be tailored in accordance with recognized goals for which the school is accountable. Some of the identified goals are as follows: National goals: reduction of attainment and achievement gaps, attendance improvement, and likelihood of a drug-free school environment State goals: national goals, some of which are identified above, as well as state-specific goals such as improving the rates of literacy and post-secondary matriculation District goals: at the district level, there may be additional goals that address areas of particular concern to the region. Local goals: further focus on the needs of students and how those goals can be realized in students' lives
Program Integration The effective data-driven approach to improving student achievement is a collaborative endeavor shared by educators, counselors, and other school personnel. Recognizing that each program strives for equal access, attainment, and achievement for the students, counselors can work with educators and other school staff toward a comprehensive data assessment system, and ongoing oversight and revision as needed. A holistic systemic approach utilizes inherent connections between programs. Education and counseling programs are connected by a related structure that allows for the alignment of content, delivery, and the reporting of results. The systemic data-driven counseling program is further connected to the school mission, inherently aligning it with the program goals, development, and evaluation of educational goals. All school-based programs are aligned with federal and state goals, and any counseling goals are aligned with ASCA standards that address goals and strategies to best target student needs. Through these combined efforts, students are helped toward their academic and career goals.
Programs and Participants Schools that are regulated and data driven nonetheless recognize that targeting the whole student can include not only classroom delivery, but also extracurricular activities. Since the school is also a social system, it includes a hierarchy of activities and relationships that incorporate the entire school community. Standards-based educational programs can generate protocols and competencies for classroom delivery, tutoring programs, extracurricular clubs, peer programs, mentoring programs, school sports, service learning projects, honor societies, and arts-music groups. The comprehensive education program can also include the contributions of parents, business collaborators, and pertinent outreach programs. The presence or absence of this kind of holistic inclusion can define a school culture in a way that either supports or hinders students' achievement. When developing a counseling program, counselors should endeavor to support and enhance existing educational program approaches, to the maximum benefit of students.
Reporting Outcome Assessment to School Community
As a member of the school community, counselors should report outcome assessment in a way that will be most accessible to the other members of that community. One of the ways that this can be achieved is by categorizing outcome results in alignment with the groupings established by the school. By presenting data that aligns with educational outcomes, the connection between the counseling and educational programs will be more clearly understood. Counselors may also want to provide access to outcome assessment to the larger school community. Results can be disaggregated to profile outcomes for grade levels, individuals, or subgroups on the school campus. Some counselors may also provide online access to outcome results for students, families, or community, in a report card or other user-friendly format. By providing reasonable access to easily understood data, counselors can further cultivate the integration of both educational and counseling goals.
Role of Assessment Documentation in Addressing Equity in School Policies and Practices Well-documented assessment provides accountability for the success of the program in addressing student needs. Assessment reporting and documentation can also isolate and identify student groups that are not being served by current programs and policies. By disaggregating data, school counselors can reveal portions of the student demographic – such as those identified by race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and other defining categories – who are not being met. Counselors may also want to conduct longitudinal studies that will reveal the success or failure of various strategies within these subgroups. This kind of focused, delineated data can clearly point to underserved students, and can help prescribe revisions in policy or program development. The contemporary school counselor can serve as a leader in the creation and refinement of school programs that equally address the needs of all students. Documented assessment can provide tangible evidence to garner school support for policy changes.
Implementation of Data-Driven Programs at Different School System Levels Implementation of a data-driven program is delivered differently at each of the following levels within the school community:
Value of Data-Driven Systemic School Counseling Programs Counselors and other interested parties can view firsthand the value that data-driven accountability can add to the contributions of counselors toward student achievement. Data-based assessment that is designed around standardized categories can also assist state and national data management in evaluating their goals for equity in academic achievement. The information gleaned can help counselors identify which programs were successful, and which programs could be improved. Data revealed in well-designed systemic programs can isolate particular academic areas, student issues, or student populations that are not being well served. Counselors can implement strategies for program improvement, incorporating its assessment in the data system. As counselors are regularly able to evaluate and revise the process of setting goals and assessing their achievement, they can adjust the school counseling program to effectively and comprehensively serve the needs of the students, the school, and the community.
School Counselor's Responsibility in Developing Data-Driven Counseling Programs Counselors who do not adopt the data-driven model of program development place themselves out of the school and district accountability sphere. They may place the program at risk by not aligning it with the accountability paradigm. Counselors who are ethically responsible should reap the benefits of a data-driven system of planning and accountability. Counselors can embrace the systemic approach by utilizing the expertise of school counselors and district counseling resources. They can then serve as mentors for emerging school counselors. Counselors should take the time to research available information about data-driven programs and how they can best benefit the students and the counseling program. This includes learning how to analyze the data, apply it to existing strategies and programs, and revise intervention strategies accordingly. Although data-driven counseling does not replace individual counseling, it can provide valuable empirical oversight to assist the counselor in maintaining an effective and relevant program.
Utilizing a Data-Driven Program following steps to realize a program that embodies social justice with a mission of access and equity:
Components of School Counseling Accountability A proactive approach to school counseling accountability includes clearly articulated parameters for responsibilities and duties, well-defined evaluation and assessment vehicles, and reporting the results of the evaluation to stakeholders. The following components contribute to a dynamic accountability model:
Serving as Ambassadors and Proponents of Data-Driven Counseling Programs Data-driven accountability for a school counseling program can provide counselors with ordered data and methodical strategies for strengthening appreciation for the program by the school community. Counselors can provide the following accountability information:
The school counselor must perform the tasks of needs assessment, program evaluation, test program management and interpretation of assessment results in order for the counseling program to be accountable to school boards, parents, or other members of the community who may be concerned about the value of the program.
Accountability Studies
Advantages Accountability studies can enhance counselors' overall knowledge and awareness about the effectiveness of strategies or programs, so that they can provide valuable input during the decision-making process involved in new programs or practices. Based on the results of these studies, counselors may become aware of professional development or staffing needs. The quantitative data from the studies can provide the tangible rationale for these requests. Counselors who are well versed on the assessment results of their program are better able to network with other counseling professionals to share program results and learn about new intervention strategies. Accountability studies can be a valuable public relations vehicle for informing educators and the larger community about the accomplishments of the school counseling program and the focus of the school system for its students. Counselors who engage in accountability studies demonstrate a personal and professional commitment to ongoing standards of quality and success.
Disadvantages Although accountability studies can provide valuable information for the school counselor, as well as the school community as a whole, there are inherent disadvantages associated with these studies. An obvious disadvantage is that the studies take time away from individual or group counseling, in order for the counselor to implement and assess the accountability model of evaluation. Although this time could be well justified by the overall benefits to the program and to the student body, these benefits can only be realized if the counselor is trained in utilizing the data and spends the time on research and evaluation to achieve any useful results. Counselors may have misgivings about utilizing accountability studies because they may produce results that are counterintuitive to implementation strategies that have proved successful in individual and/or group counseling. Some counselors may also be hesitant to perform accountability studies because of a perception of being micro-managed by the stakeholders requesting the data.
SCPAC
Purpose and Parameters The school counseling program advisory committee (SCPAC) is generally comprised of counselors, parents, educators, and other members of the community, all of whom have a stake and influence in the school's decision-making. The school principal should always be included, particularly since he or she will need to be included in the discussion about proposed program improvements or recommendations, and will be instrumental in approving funding for these proposals. The SCPAC can serve as a sounding board during decision making and can assist the counselor in introducing needed program changes or requesting resources. The SCPAC can serve as a liaison committee with the larger community, and can include parent-teacher organizations by invitation or at least by communicating with them regarding relevant impending decisions. By including community input through the liaison SCPAC committee, counselors demonstrate their willingness to consider outside perspectives and additional sources for funding.
Role Assuming that the SCPAC is active, ongoing and not undergoing significant changes, it is customary for the group to meet once each semester to discuss the needs and available resources of the counseling program, and to provide recommendations and endorsement for proposed improvements. The group can analyze assessment results, propose program modifications, and consider recommendations from staff members. Program proposals are generally based on the results of assessments. The group can identify potential funding sources, but the school principal should always be included in any funding discussions. The group can serve as a valuable resource for demonstrating support among the school community for program enhancement, and potentially for influencing the principal in funding and approval decisions. Counselors should consider the benefits and the potential impact of the SCPAC and should focus their attention and time on the group as needed.
Needs Assessment Needs assessments serve to analyze and identify the needs of the school, the student body, and the community. An effective needs assessment will identify the particular needs of specific subgroups, and whether or not the needs of all groups and subgroups are being met. A comprehensive needs assessment will reveal areas to be addressed in the student body and its respective demographic subgroups, as well as in the school community, including parents, staff, counselors, local business, community organizations, and community members. Counselors can create effective, comprehensive counseling programs that will enable students to realize improvements in their personal and academic performance. Needs assessments can also assist counselors in better understanding the various needs of different subgroups and addressing the significant issues of the school community.
Program Evaluation The purpose of process evaluation, or program audit, is to determine if the program is appropriately implemented in all areas, and if that implementation is properly documented. The evaluation reviews whether there is implementation and sufficient documentation of all relevant facets of a comprehensive school counseling program. By providing an analysis of each component of the program, the audit identifies areas of strength and weakness within the program, and indicates how these areas compare with district or state mission statements. The following terms are used to evaluate areas of the program:
Service Assessment
Event-Topic Counts Counselors may be required to provide service assessment reports to guidance supervisors, superintendents, and school boards. Although guidance supervisors may request general service assessments, school boards and superintendents may ask for more specific event-topic counts. These counts refer to how a counselor spends his or her school time. Counselors are asked to document each time a student is contacted, receives any type of counseling service, or interacts with the counselor in any capacity. The reporting of these counts may be in the form of a log or a simple count, and requires the counselor to maintain a weekly or monthly recording of how many students receive general counseling or individual sessions to treat depression, behaviors, anxiety, social skills, anger management, family changes, or conflict resolution. Counselors and school boards can appreciate the contributions of the counselor evidenced by quantified event-time counts.
Time Logs The purpose of time logs is generally determined by the school, the district, or some other oversight entity. Time logs can provide valuable compliance documentation to counselors and school boards for funding purposes. Certain states and school counseling programs require the use of time logs in order to quantify the type of work being done in the school community and surrounding areas. Some school programs may require the counselor to spend a certain percentage of their time in meetings with students individually, in groups, or for guidance purposes. Counselors should set up the time log format in a manner that will best document the time spent in each capacity, and be categorized in a manner that will be most useful to the entity requesting the time log. The amount of time spent on any counseling-related activity should be documented and categorized as accurately as possible. Counselors may want to maintain daily time logs to effectively capture data regarding time spent.
Outcome Assessment In contrast to a service assessment that quantifies time spent, a well-defined outcome assessment can provide a profile of the effectiveness of particular aspects of the program. Counselors should recognize that it is not intended as an evaluation of his or her performance, but rather as a useful assessment of the program itself. Counselors should focus on the two key features of outcome assessment: It is not a professional evaluation of the counselor, a limit to his or her ability to perform the job, a requirement for standardized tests or curricula, or a prescribed process with no capacity for expansion.
The assessment is:
Assessment Terms The following are assessment-related terms and their definitions:
Planning for Outcome Assessment in Research Design When designing research or implementing new intervention strategies, counselors should consider outcome assessment in the initial stages of planning. Otherwise, they are reliant upon prescribed case studies, non-experimental design paradigms, or static-group comparison studies to analyze the effectiveness of the intervention. By planning for outcome assessment, counselors can tailor the assessment to the intervention. The optimal format for research design is random assignment of participants to treatment conditions. This will allow the counselor to implement true experimental designs. Otherwise, with little or no control over assignments, counselors must rely on the results of a quasi-experimental or non-experimental design. The completion of pretests and posttests is also optimal, although not all counselors require the dependent variable.
Implementing an Original Outcome Assessment There may be a time when a counselor chooses to develop an original outcome measure that directly addresses the application, or is more appropriate for the group. When posing questions to the group for responses to be used in the assessment, the following considerations should be incorporated:
Data Collection Methods Counselors can collect data through the following methods:
Choosing an Appropriate Assessment Method The following considerations should be incorporated when choosing an assessment method: How the test developer defines the construct that will be used, e.g. aptitude, achievement, etc. The counselor should not utilize the assessment in a context other than the original one, since the results could be misrepresentative. The technical manual should also be studied, in order to value the utility of the test as well as the reliability and validity of the scores. How other organizations reviewed the test. Professional literature is available that will provide reviews from other counselors and similar organizations. The key factors that should be considered. Counselors considering a quantitative or qualitative assessment should analyze if the baseline and original population are appropriate for the student and whether the instrument can indicate a direction for intervention.
Need for Current Research and Evaluating Reliability of Sources School counseling is a relatively young field; it has been around only since the 1920s. Since its establishment, school counseling has changed in focus and added much to its foundation, but there is much left to be learned. It is important that school counselors be familiar with current research so they can understand the most effective counseling trends. Because research drives practice, it is important to use only research that is reliable. The source of a study should be peer-reviewed, which assures the reader that several professionals have reviewed the study for ethical quality, potential biases, and methodology to ensure the results are valid and reliable. Considering the literature review that founded a study may also be helpful because it can point the reader to other related and reliable sources. A school counselor should read research skeptically and not only read the abstract of a study but review the data to see if the study was large enough to signify trends. Small studies may be informative but are more prone to population and sampling biases.
ANOVA Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is statistical calculation that determines whether the new teaching strategy has enough of an effect on a dependent condition (e.g., children's math scores) to make using the strategy worthwhile. Researchers compare two groups of test scores. One group did not experience any new teaching: the other participated in the new math program. The more people in a study, the more you can account for individual differences that might get in the way of seeing if the teaching strategy is what is determining the change in test scores. ANOVA equations look at the difference between the non-taught students' scores and the taught students' scores and evens out the differences that are not accounted for by the teaching method. Finally, the F-test shows whether or not the test scores were statistically significant. If F is more than 1, it is considered significant, and the amount over 1 (e.g., an F could be 17) gives an indication of how strongly the new teaching method is associated with the rise in test scores. A high F score indicates that there is a strong, positive relationship between the new
Use of Research to Promote Understanding of Need for School Counseling to Communities Counselors can use research to inform the public; for example, in newsletters to parents, a counselor might write a research-based article that describes the signs of cyberbullying. Research studies can be used to create highly effective in-school programs informed by up-to-date findings. Well-established, recently re-validated assessments can be identified from professional journals before being offered to students. Conducting thorough assessments of school counseling programs and presenting the findings to the greater community can help raise awareness of the usefulness of school counseling. Action research is a trend in research in which educational professionals can bring research principles into their own practice to actively evaluate their own practice and provide information to expand the research base. Action research is used to identify weaknesses in one's own practice, become informed, and take recursive action in response.
Current Research Databases School counselors can use databases such as ERIC, PsycLIT, or PsycINFO to locate thousands of peer-reviewed articles published in a vast number of journals. For one seeking widespread information on a particular topic, databases provide the option of accessing scores of studies across hundreds of journals and decades of research. Maintaining subscriptions to important peer-reviewed journals such as the Professional School Counseling Journal or Journal of School Counseling helps counselors stay abreast of current research and discussion in the field. Journals covering gender and cultural diversity aid in keeping important sociocultural issues in the forefront of the counselor's awareness. Attending seminars and continuous education classes not only aids in the professional development of the counselor but also brings her or him into contact with current issues and discussions in the field. Joining local groups of colleagues expands awareness of regional issues, creates opportunities to work together to implement relevant local change, and provides a forum of professional support.
Designing and Implementing Interventions The procedure for intervention entails setting goals, designing intervention strategies toward achieving those goals, and evaluating the success of the intervention. One of the first considerations in the intervention process is the counselor's consideration of a student's developmental stage, as well as the social and environmental settings and context. A counselor will want to make the decision to apply either formal or informal assessment methods, which in turn will affect evaluation procedures. Other factors to consider are informally assessing the level of parent and teacher support available for an intervention, as well as gauging the time constraints. Counselors should carefully consider all aspects of a student situation when determining intervention strategies. Another thing to be considered is whether resolving a situation may be beyond the scope of the school counseling setting, at which point the student should be referred to an outside resource.
Incorporating Collaboration and Flexibility in Setting Goals Although it is important for each session, with each student, to be guided by clearly defined therapeutic goals, it is also important to recognize that reaching those goals is often a result of collaboration with the student, and may require some flexibility on the part of the counselor. The counseling relationship is inherently a dynamic one, which is most successful when there is a partnership between the counselor and the student. Setting and realizing goals in counseling should include the following considerations: What is particular about this student or this situation that needs to be incorporated into the strategy for intervention? What are the student's goals for this situation? Answering these questions will enable the counselor to develop and refine goals, timelines, best approaches to each phase of the goals, and possibly even adjustments to the physical counseling environment. All of these and other interactive, collaborative considerations will contribute to the success and efficacy of the counseling session and relationship.
Criteria for Determining Appropriate Intervention Initiating an intervention for a student or situation is a complex strategic decision that should take account of a number of factors. It is important to remember that a number of strategies are applicable in most situations, so counselors are wise to isolate those strategies that are most effective in an academic setting. It is also important to remember that a particular strategy that is appropriate and effective for one student and one situation might not be suitable for another student with the same situation. Counselors should implement interventions that will serve to develop and maintain a dynamic counseling relationship; that will work in tandem with a student's evolving development; that have reasonable goals for the allotted time frame; that are flexible in relation to individual student circumstances;to the student's overt behavior; and that are respectful of diversity and culture.
Choosing Interventions in an Academic Setting The general considerations for an intervention in an academic setting are the age, development, cultural background, and social skills of the student. Cultural and social considerations are particularly pivotal because they can provide the parameters for establishing recognition and context for some interventions. It might be useful to consult the families of students when determining the cultural and social relevance of a particular therapeutic method. Categories of therapy generally fall into broad areas of multimodal counseling, family counseling, direct and indirect play therapy, and expressive art therapy. Common therapy strategies for school-age children include drama, storytelling, music, art, puppetry, use of tactile materials like clay and sand, and an array of play therapies. Other formal methods include reality therapy, Gestalt techniques, cognitive-behavioral counseling, and Adlerian counseling. Knowledge of the spectrum of available therapies is particularly valuable for counselors seeking appropriate interventions for students in an academic setting.
Determining Appropriate Interventions According to Behavior and Symptoms Once a counselor has narrowed down the choice of appropriate therapies for a particular situation, it is then a good idea to further narrow the options to those that would be appropriate for a particular student, with particular overt behaviors or symptoms. For instance, a student with ADHD might benefit most from a therapy that focuses on impulse control and self-monitoring, while a student who displays difficulty completing assignments might be better served by a kind of reality therapy that allows him or her to apply abstract thinking to consideration of the impact of their actions and to develop alternative behaviors. Another significant example is working with a student suffering from depression, who may need to first work on thought patterns through cognitive therapy, before or in tandem with other therapies targeting the situation. It is always appropriate to consider the cultural background, age, and developmental level of the student when choosing therapies.
Intervention Implementation A successful intervention is best preceded by the establishment of a strong relationship between counselor and student. From there, the counselor can recommend an intervention to the student, who in turn will feel empowered by the effect of collaboration. This approach also provides students with validation, encouragement, and the endorsement of their own desires for resolution. Once the intervention is in place, it may be appropriate for counselors to discuss the progress and goals of the therapy with parents, teachers and others included in the student's support network. Likewise, if the intervention therapy is not progressing as anticipated, it may be appropriate to work with teachers to develop behavioral strategies in the classroom to complement the therapy. This communication and collaboration with teachers and/or parents should be within the context of the counseling sessions, and should honor the counselor's responsibilities to the school.
Including the Student in Evaluation Procedures Communicating with the student about the success of interventions, and the progress toward therapeutic goals, should take account of the counseling relationship. Indeed, the student's response to evaluation practices helps decide the success of the intervention. Without student response, counselors run the risk of losing the student's trust. A counselor can determine if a particular student, in a particular environment, would be best served by an informal or a formal evaluation of progress. In a collaborative informal evaluation, both student and counselor are present and the counselor can observe and monitor student response. Formal evaluations take into account reports from parents and teachers, as well as the student's documentation of his or her success in a particular area. With either formal or informal evaluation of progress, the counselor should make it a practice to take into consideration the relationship that has been established with the student.
Cautions and Safeguards Regarding Evaluation Procedures While counselor-generated evaluations are to some extent inherently subjective, there are several recommended safeguards to ensure a reasonable level of objectivity. In terms of the relationship to the student, the counselor should maintain a professional emotional distance, while still demonstrating sensitivity to student needs and feelings. The counselor should guard against becoming too emotionally attached to a student, since this could obscure the counselor's ability to evaluate empirically the level of success of the therapy or intervention. It is also important that the counselor and/or counseling team develop evaluation techniques and a rubric that will appropriately assess the achievement of therapeutic goals. A single-case study experimental design may be advisable. Another common suggestion is for the counselor to implement both formal and informal evaluation techniques to allow for more objective
Sensitivities Involved in Ending the Counseling Relationship The academic counseling relationship is perhaps more susceptible to difficulties in closure than the professional relationship, for the mere fact that the student and counselor may have met several days a week, or even several times a day. For this reason, the termination of the relationship needs to be approached carefully and methodically. Although there is no definitive research regarding this process, there are some generally agreed-upon practices. Termination can be an abrupt or a gradual process, but it is nonetheless recommended that the counselor use his or her discretion in choosing a time to prepare the student for the last session. It is a good idea for the counselor to take this time to reinforce with the student the success of the counseling relationship, including the progress and improvements made by the student. Counselors should be attentive to student feelings and responses, and should recommend outside resources as appropriate.
Brief-Counseling Method
Parameters and Purpose The brief-counseling method, sometimes referred to as solution-focused brief counseling (SFBC), is often indicated in schools that have regimented time constraints for counseling. The parameters of these brief-counseling sessions are designed to mimic the parameters of longer individual sessions, but modeled for the indicated time period. The SFBC model also incorporates the unique aspects of the school counseling session. The model includes an opportunity for the student to concretely describe his or her particular situation, present any previous attempted resolutions, and then develop and implement an intervention. The SFBC model is most effective when the counselors utilize the time to endorse student strengths, successes, and resources. This model is often found to be effective for students of diverse backgrounds and cultures.
Basic Premises and Strategies Some of the key premises that underlie the SFBC model are: Focus should be directed toward solutions, and not toward the problems. Within each problem is an identifiable exception that should be isolated and addressed when formulating a solution. Large changes often begin with small changes. Within each student are the resources needed to solve his or her problem.
The basic strategies of SFBC are: If the counselor determines that no problematic issue exists, he or she should be cautious not to create one. Counselors should develop tasks similar to those with which the student has found success. Counselors should be open to the necessity of changing strategies, if it is found that a particular strategy is unsuccessful with a particular student or situation. These premises and strategies have been carefully researched and formulated by a consortium of counselors well versed in the SFBC model.
Core Concepts The strategies indicated for SFBC are based on the following set of core concepts: If the counselor develops and presents the goals in a positive context, then cooperation, collaboration, and positive response from the student are more likely. In the SFBC model, a pragmatic approach is much more indicated than a theoretical one; in other words, this model focuses on what works rather than what the problem is. Counselors should be careful to formulate intervention strategies that can be reasonably attained within the allotted time frame. Because of the nature and parameters of the SFBC model, counselors should encourage students to focus on present and future circumstances, and to avoid past experiences as much as possible. Counselors should focus intervention strategies on students' behaviors and actions, rather than on reflective insights. All of these strategies contribute to the efficacy and success of the SFBC model of counseling session.
Interactive Format in the First Session One of the goals of the first session of the SFBC model is for the counselor to present the student with a series of questions designed to elicit a response. These responses will form the foundation for developing an intervention. A recommended format for introducing these questions is for the counselor to first present the basic goals and premises of SFBC. Second, he or she will inform the student that questions will be asked, and that the questions could prove to be difficult or challenging. This precursor strategy often sets the stage for the student to be poised with a response to a challenge. The student's response will often provide the counselor with a starting point for intervention. This posturing will contribute to the efficacy of questioning in the first session of the SFBC.
Benefits of Group Counseling in Addition to Individual Counseling
As a rule, adolescents tend to learn better and respond more when interacting with peers. Therefore, group counseling that augments individual counseling can be beneficial. In group counseling, students have the opportunity to both give and receive support for positive behaviors. Likewise, group counseling provides immediate feedback for negative behaviors and thought patterns, allowing the student to reflect on his or her choices. The format of a group counseling session can also serve as a microcosm of larger society, providing a venue for students to experiment with behaviors in a controlled environment, and to experience the feedback of peers with whom they have developed a trust relationship. Group counseling, in tandem with the more remedial individual counseling, provides a comprehensive therapeutic environment for the student. Counselors who utilize both formats reap the benefits of opportunities for preventative therapy, as well as a richer school
Types of Group Counseling There are many models of group therapy, including psycho-educational groups, crisis-centered groups, problem-centered groups, and growth-centered groups. Each of these groups carries its own considerations as a model for various situations. The psycho-educational group is generally helpful in promoting a student's awareness of common issues in life. Crisis-centered groups are often short-term and responsive to a major trauma on a community-scale. Problem-centered groups and growth-centered groups are preventative in nature. Growth-centered groups are designed to help students grow in areas of deficiency, such as self-esteem, whereas problem-centered groups are designed to reduce risk of major problems occurring in the future or developing over time. The problems in question include substance abuse or stress-related issues in students' lives.
Psycho-Educational Groups
Differences Between Psycho-Educational and Counseling Groups To appreciate the distinctions between psycho-educational and counseling groups, it is a good idea to first identify the similarities. Either group can address life management issues such as loss, stress issues, academic success, etc. Either group can be categorized into developmental, remedial, or school environments. Where they differ is in the focus within the groups and group sessions. Counseling groups tend to address matters of managing crisis, targeting issues of process more than specific content issues. Psycho-educational groups, on the other hand, apply a more concentrated focus on particular content. Counseling groups tend to be less structured than psycho-educational groups. The effect and impact on students in the two groups is often perceived as distinctively different, although counselors tend to view them as similar in format and purpose.
Parameters and Benefits Psycho-educational groups serve to address and develop personal growth factors within an academic or educational setting. The academic setting provides a framework for targeting common adolescent issues like emotional development, self-image, identity definition, and interpersonal skills. The student in the psycho-educational group develops socially and emotionally while addressing academic skills. The counselor in the psycho-educational setting can provide students with increasingly difficult developmental tasks, resulting in optimum benefit for the student. An important added benefit of this model is that it provides students with an array of resources, contributing to an increased feeling of self-worth and self-confidence. An effective psycho-educational counseling group can contribute positively to the futures of the students involved, by both mitigating future problem occurrences, as well as by providing a cache of resources that will be useful in career planning.
Choosing Topics or Themes The initial consideration for choosing topics for psycho-educational groups should be the age and developmental level of the students involved. While adolescent and pre-adolescent groups will respond better to a focus on social and interpersonal skills, groups of younger students thrive in a friendship or playgroup, or a group focused on problem solving. These topics or themes can provide a framework for students to address peripheral issues. It might be advantageous to refer to the school's agenda for academic and social skill development, in order to compile topics for psycho-educational groups. Some typical topics, particularly for adolescents, are stress management, romantic relationships, time management, and career planning. It is also a good idea to ask the school if there are any survey instruments they have used to identify topics of interest among their students.
Components in Creating a Group The first step in creating a psycho-educational group is to define the following:
Then, the counselor should clearly identify both long-term objectives and measured short-term steps toward those objectives, applicable to each session. The counselor should develop content and exercises that use an experiential framework which will incorporate and address the following:
Finally, evaluation of the success of the group should include evaluation of each session and the process involved in achieving the long-term objectives.
Counseling Groups
Focus and Student Population Counseling groups are generally formed to address personal issues that hinder or prohibit academic success. The groups can target behavioral problems such as outbursts of temper, class disruption, social maladjustment, etc.; or they can target specific life-altering events such as the death of a loved one or a pregnancy. The groups are formed to work solely on the personal issues, aside from any resulting academic problems. Students referred to counseling groups have demonstrated an inability or diminished ability, particularly in the case of a personal crisis, to manage and positively respond to their academic responsibilities. Within the counseling groups, facilitators can provide an environment for students to benefit from peer support, particualrly by removing the sense of isolation. Benefits include a stronger sense of self-worth and the adoption of healthy strategies to handle emotions.
Parameters and Format The counseling group provides a safe venue for students to express and process overwhelming emotions. The overall tone of the group should be one of caring, compassion, and empathy. Many of its members will have experienced, or will be experiencing, similar events and emotions. The format of the group should be one of support, trust, and understanding. Members of the group should feel a sense of camaraderie with the other members. Acting as facilitator, group counselors can encourage peers within the group to provide support and suggestions for emotional healing to the other members, contributing to the general benefit of the entire group. Counselors should also be cognizant of each student's need to address both actions and thought patterns in the process of working through their issues or trauma with the group.
Crisis-Centered Groups A crisis-centered group is formed in direct response to a traumatic precipitating event. The event could involve a few individuals, or could be school-wide, such as a shooting or bus accident. The overarching purpose of a crisis-centered group is that of providing a controlled venue where students can express their feelings. In the case of an issue involving a few students, such as a disruptive conflict between students, an additional goal of the crisis-centered group is to facilitate resolution of the conflict. In this case, the group will form for the purpose of resolution, and will meet at least until the matter is resolved. In the case of a large population trauma, the group will form to assist the students in coping. In both of these instances, additional meetings could be held to work on personal development issues for the student members.
Problem-Centered Groups Problem-centered groups are often an outgrowth of crisis-centered groups, formed after the crisis has passed or been resolved. These groups are formed to address issues that either precipitated the crisis or could cause problems in the future. The students in these groups come together to focus on specific issues that may be hindering their academic progress or their general well-being. Some of the issues that are addressed in problem-centered groups are stress management, conflict resolution strategies, academic or career goals, and substance abuse. The effectiveness of the group depends on the openness of its members to resolution. Participation in problem-centered groups is usually an option chosen by the students involved. The members of these groups, which are usually smaller than crisis-centered groups, benefit from the support and input from other members in resolving an issue that may feel overwhelming when faced alone.
Growth-Centered Groups Similar to problem-centered groups, growth-centered groups often form as an outgrowth of a previous group. For instance, if a crisis-centered group is formed to address situation by discussing anger management, the growth-centered group will instead address each individual student's issues and concerns, which may be peripheral or essential to the group topic. Under the umbrella topic of a common issue like anger management, students may be dealing with low self-esteem, stress as a result of poor time management, conflicting value paradigms, etc. The tone of the group is supportive and empathetic, allowing students to develop healthy responses to their situation. The group as a whole works on positive behavior dynamics. Growth-centered groups allow counselors to identify and address students on an individual basis.
Forming Groups in School Settings Once a counselor perceives a need to form a group, based on input from teachers, parents, and/or students, the following parameters need to be explored and established:
The focus and purpose of these groups should be primarily for the benefit of the students, within the context of the therapeutic paradigm. Counselors should discuss the group's formation with teachers and other school personnel as appropriate before launching the group. Issues of confidentiality should be clearly and firmly established and communicated to students, parents, and school personnel. Although the groups are generally established for the benefit and well-being of the students, the provisions of confidentiality and other counseling ethics continue to apply.
Dovetailing of School Counseling Curriculum to Standard Academic Curriculum While the school counseling curriculum is developed within the same parameters as the standard academic curriculum, there are distinguishing characteristics and processes. One of the differences is that the standard academic curriculum is generally developed to address grade- or age-based curricular goals, whereas counseling curriculum also incorporates behavioral strategies and expectations. Counselors can further augment curriculum with professional expertise and knowledge gleaned from professional journals or other resources. In terms of process, standard academic curriculum is often a collaborative product of committees that include parents, school staff, and administration. School counseling curriculum is generally developed by counselors and teachers. However, many schools have liaison committees available to assist school counselors in developing curriculum. Nonetheless, all school staff should be aware of the goals and strategies employed in school counseling curriculum, and counselors should align academic curricular goals with the school counseling curriculum.
Standards for Developing School Counseling Curriculum There are both state standards and national models (from associations such as the ASCA) for the development of school counseling curriculum. These models address expectations for grade and education levels, as well as school guidance models targeting different regions and grade levels. A number of states have developed counseling programs that are derived from national recommendations, incorporating current literature and the success rates for particular models or strategies. When developing school counseling curriculum, counselors should follow these national and state models while continuing to consider recommendations from the school community. The local school community is often the best source for strategies to improve the academic, personal, and career development of the students. Collaboration with a school advisory group can also facilitate development of a counseling curriculum that best meets students' needs and the goals of the school community at large.
Designing Programs for All Students That Will Also Benefit the Community Since schools are the primary focal point for issues relating to adolescents, counselors and educators often work with other community entities in discussing and developing strategies for addressing the needs of youth. Some of these entities include libraries, police departments, private schools, recreation centers, and other community-based programs as well as national- and state-based organizations. One of the ways that counselors can work as liaison between students and these entities is by dispelling the idea that the onus of at-risk behavior lies with the student. They can work with community representatives who feel that students are solely or primarily to blame for their behavior. Counselors can collaborate with educators to develop programs that are designed to address the needs of not only mainstream students, but also at-risk students. These programs can incorporate the needs and concerns of the larger community as well as academic goals identified for the student population.
Family Systems Theory Family systems theory focuses on the particular context of the child's family. Whereas individual approaches may focus on modifying a particular behavior, or considering the personality traits of a student, systems theory attends to the interactions of the child with parents, siblings, extended family members, and family history. Theorist and practitioners like Murray Bowen and Virginia Satir recognized that individuals are under constant pressure in the family system to act in ways that maintain stability of the system—sometimes at great cost to the well-being of the individual. Virginia Satir, who started working with families in 1951, was arguably the first family systems therapist in the United States. Satir identified the omnipresent characteristic of family homeostasis but also insisted on the lifelong potential of change for the better. Children are helped by addressing family interactions, and the entire family becomes healthier. Satir also attended to the negative effects of low self-esteem on marital partners and how unhappy marriages create dysfunctional families. One dysfunctional process, triangulation (also researched by Murray Bowen), puts a child between the warring adults, perhaps as scapegoat, confidante, or go-between but always to the child's detriment.
School Counseling Advisory Group A school counseling advisory group can provide guidance counselors with the comprehensive expectations of the school community as well as a track record of current and previous school counseling models. Generally, these advisory groups are comprised of school staff, school counselors, parents, and community members. The overall focus of most counseling programs, and therefore their advisory groups, is often the development of curriculum that addresses common and relevant issues like sexual harassment, bullying, and social relationships. Counselors can refer to past discussions and studies to glean information about strategies that did or did not work, as well as areas that may have required particular attention. Advisory groups can inform counselors about pedagogical or counseling approaches that work best in their school environment. It is advisable for counselors to maintain ongoing communication with advisory groups and other school community members in order to keep apprised of current needs or problem areas.
Considerations When Generating Student Outcome Expectations Expected student outcomes should reflect the combined input of state and national standards, current literature, and formal and informal needs assessments conducted at the school or district level. Advisory groups, when undertaking the task of generating student outcome goals, should first amass the relevant information and resources. This will form the basis for future discussions and collaboration within the group and with the school counselors. Student outcomes should represent what students should know or be able to do upon graduation from high school. The National Standards for School Counseling Programs delineates 9 standards that incorporate academic, personal, social, and career development areas. Student outcome expectations should be broken down into smaller sequential goals. Counselors working with the district and school community can develop strategies and a rubric for addressing these sequenced student outcome goals.
Designing K-12 Grade-Based Curricula Although counselors teaching at various grade levels are generally responsible for developing and delivering curricula appropriate to the level, it is recommendable to develop that curricula as an integral part of a comprehensive K-12 curriculum. For example, counselors who teach at the elementary level, while delivering curricula appropriate for that grade level, also should be cognizant of the larger curricular goals as well as the next phase of students' studies. It is important that students receive curricula that builds on previous learning foundations. Student learning within each classroom should not be an isolated experience, nor should it be unnecessarily redundant. Although some schools and districts operate within a paradigm that allows for quasi-isolated curriculum development within broad age groups, it is nonetheless usually recommended that all curriculum development be designed within a larger K-12 context.
Facilitating Student Expansion of Knowledge Counselors can and should encourage the furtherance of student knowledge, either through synthesis between disciplines, or through sequential learning within a particular discipline. Counselors and teachers can communicate and collaborate, both within a grade level and between grade levels, to develop lesson plans that encourage students to form correlations between counseling curricula and academic curricula. This can also extend to correlation between disciplines, such as between history and narrative or between math and music. Teaching in the classroom can include the Socratic approach, encouraging student curiosity about the connections between disciplines. Counselors can also work with students to strive for the next level of sequential learning within a particular discipline, by making those connections explicit within the lesson plans. Sequential learning strategies contribute to future student success as they move to higher grade and school levels.
Lesson Plan Components Generally, regardless of the grade level or the discipline, most successful lesson plans will include three basic components. The first of these components is the introduction. In this part of the lesson, students are introduced to the general topic or the particular focus area of the lesson. Secondly, the lesson plan should include activities that will serve to develop the lesson. These activities can be performed by the counselor, a teacher, or can be participatory activities by the students. The third section of the lesson not only concludes the lesson, but also evolves into an application portion, whereby students are able to project the lesson into their daily lives. This portion of the lesson often also includes student discussion. The total effect of this kind of sequenced lesson plan is increased student engagement and a greater likelihood that students will remember and assimilate the lesson.
Lesson Introduction Introducing a lesson topic serves several purposes in classroom teaching. Initially, it focuses students' attention on the topic to be addressed. In this sense, delivery of the introduction should be clear and compelling, soliciting student interest and engagement. It can also be valuable to let students know the planned learning goals or areas to be covered. Students can begin to develop a mental blueprint as the lesson progresses, and will be more receptive to each step of the lesson development, like a concert attendee following a program. It also helps to make connections with previous lessons or knowledge foundations, encouraging class participation. Lesson plans that are well introduced are more likely to result in comprehensive student understanding.
Including Previous Knowledge in Lesson Plans Incorporating previous knowledge in a lesson plan imbues students with the self-confidence and orientation to the lesson to be more engaged. It also helps to establish a participatory trust between counselor-teacher and students. Students are more likely to feel that they already possess useful information, and the counselor is there to facilitate the expansion of their knowledge base. A useful strategy for incorporating previous knowledge in a lesson plan is to ask questions, to which students can positively respond. Building on this, counselors can introduce next sequences or facets of knowledge, possibly by asking relevant questions and volunteering the answers. Another valuable strategy is to reiterate previous knowledge, with which students are already familiar, and then to lead the class to the next phase of knowledge or skill development. Students whose previous knowledge is acknowledged are likely to be more receptive and participate more fully.
Developmental Activities in Lesson Plans Counselors can also incorporate previous knowledge in the developmental activity portion of a lesson plan. Planned activities can address students' existing knowledge about a topic, giving them opportunities to express that knowledge, and then can lead the students to a new level of of understanding. It is important that counselors develop a clear outline for planned activities, cognizant of the strategies being utilized to reach the objectives. Additionally, a rubric should be established in order to clearly assess the effectiveness of activity strategies. A distinguishing characteristic of developmental activities is that they provide a vehicle for expression through multiple intelligences, further contributing to the collective benefit of the class. Counselors should be sensitive to individual strengths and needs, and should tailor activities accordingly. Developmental activities can provide another vehicle for student confidence and participation.
Eliciting Responses Through Different Intelligences Counselors can augment the traditional verbal/text-based classroom lesson plan with activities that engage students' artistic, spatial, logical, kinesthetic, and other learning modes. Counselors can present lesson topics through various media, including music and pictures. They can also ask students to respond experientially by drawing, writing a poem, playing drums, or possibly composing and performing a song or dance. Multiple media responses are particularly valuable when working with students on qualitative issues like problem-solving or personal crises. Counselors employing multiple-media and multiple-intelligence approaches to curriculum delivery provide students greater opportunity for engagement and expression. This increases the efficacy of the lesson, and is a more inclusive strategy for students with diverse learning styles. Counselors should be sensitive to the particular student group in the classroom, and the individual learning styles represented.
Effectiveness of Passive and Active Learning Styles The traditional lecture-based curriculum delivery style is effective in terms of transmitting information, but only requires the student to participate in a very limited, passive manner. Students who simply hear the information are limited to a particular learning style and more subject to distraction. Complementing the lecture with videos or handouts can increase students' receptivity by adding visual stimuli. A more effective augmentation would be to include opportunities for students to actively participate and learn. Some examples of active learning include verbal question response, writing on the board, note taking, and other activities that require students to be engaged. Also, if students are asked to reiterate information through writing or other activities, they necessarily are focused on the lesson. Active learning strategies significantly increase the amount of data that students acquire.
Conclusion to a Developmental Lesson or Activity Although the conclusion is generally fewer than five minutes, there are several objectives to be accomplished in its various components. The conclusion is a time to reiterate what has been learned, and to give students the opportunity to assimilate new knowledge. Counselors can begin by repeating the knowledge that students brought into the classroom, and the increased knowledge that was obtained during the session. Students should be asked to give a recap or response to the lesson, to indicate that they have understood. Student response increases their receptivity, and gives the counselor an indication of how much the students have understood. This time can also be used to cite examples and applications for the lesson, further increasing students' assimilation of the lesson. Student participation and response is pivotal to this part of the lesson.
Importance of Assessing Learning Objectives Counselors can informally assess the effectiveness of a lesson and the general level of student receptivity by listening to student responses during the lesson and at the conclusion. However, a more formal assessment can be advantageous for a few reasons. If a counselor develops a written rubric before presenting a lesson, this rubric can provide a real-time backdrop for counselors to both assess and guide the lessons toward its conclusion. Having a kind of inventory for lesson objectives can provide an outline for the discussion that can be at least informally shared with students, allowing them to realize their progress. In addition, a written rubric can provide the kind of quantitative, formal assessment vehicle that is very valuable in building credibility with the school community. With clear assessment information, counselors can experience increased collaboration and support from school staff, counselors, and parents.
Designing an Assessment Rubric Designing an assessment rubric for school counseling classroom strategies begins with defining the learning objectives. Also included should be the demographics of the group, expected learning outcomes, and clear criteria for measurement. Once this rubric is clearly delineated, counselors can target learning objectives with specific planned activities. They can assess the success of the activity by comparing student responses with the rubric criteria. It is important that the components of the rubric be clearly defined before the commencement of the lesson, in order for the counselor to design and deliver activities that will elicit appropriate responses. All of this can be conducted during the normal course of a classroom lesson, with its introduction, activity, and conclusion. A clearly written rubric designed well before the lesson will ensure a successful, non-disruptive
Role of Assessment in Designing Lesson Strategies Lesson plan assessment results can provide a metric for the success of the lesson as well as the relevance of the learning objectives. If student responses have met the criteria set forth in the rubric, counselors can be fairly assured that the lesson or activity was relevant and targeted the expected objective. However, if student behaviors or responses do not meet the rubric criteria, there are several possible explanations that should be considered, individually or in concert. An initial consideration is that of the lesson or activity, to review its applicability to the group and to the objectives. Another consideration is the objectives themselves. Counselors should determine whether the objectives were reasonable for the student group. The value of a rubric with clearly defined components is realized if some of the criteria are met, but others are not. Counselors can then adjust the lesson or activity according to the results of the assessment.
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