Social Science: U.S. History (Review)

Colonial Period (1607-1765)
The colonial period describes a time in which several European countries attempted to settle and colonize the Americas to expand their territories. The earliest attempts to colonize were by Spain and France, who conquered and settled much of what are now the southern and central parts of the United States of America. In the process of colonizing the Americas, many Native American groups were displaced or killed by disease and territorial expansion. The main focus of the colonial period in what is now the United Sates is often placed on the thirteen English colonies, which were located on the east coast. The primary reasons for the English colonization in the Americas were in response to England's policy of mercantilism and colonists' desire to be free from religious persecution. Mercantilism in England required the colonies to provide raw materials to England to continue to grow and support the mother country while also limiting trade with other nations. The other primary motivation for settlement included escape from persecution by the Church of England toward Catholic and other religious groups.

The 13 Colonies
The thirteen colonies were a group of English colonies that were overtly similar in their political and religious beliefs.
The thirteen colonies were comprised of:

New England Colonies:
New Hampshire
Massachusetts
Rhode Island
Connecticut

Chesapeake Bay Colonies:
Virginia
Maryland

Middle Colonies:
New York
Pennsylvania
New Jersey
Delaware

Southern Colonies:
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia

French and Indian War
The French and Indian War was essentially a war over territory between the English colonies and the French colonies. Rising competition between the English and French empires brought more British military support into the colonies, which created a stronger feeling of unity between the colonies and England than ever before. In 1763, the Treaty of Paris brought an end to the war, as France relinquished some of its Eastern territory to England, including the territory east of modern-day Louisiana all the way to the Great Lakes. In the aftermath of the war, tensions rose between the colonies and England because of unequal investment in the war. British taxpayers had supplied the majority of funding for the war, while the colonists were forced to fight in a war that served the monarchy's interests rather than their own interests. These tensions, along with continued British occupation, were the foundation for the coming revolution.

American Revolution (1765-1783)

The Intolerable Acts
Following the French and Indian War, Britain increased taxes and continued to impose quartering on the colonies. The most famous of these included the Stamp Acts, the Tea Acts, and the Quartering Acts. The purpose of these laws was to force the colonies to be dependent on Britain, and to help restore the British economy following the wars of the previous years. These laws were known to the British as the Coercive Acts. In America, they were called the Intolerable Acts, due to the offensive nature of England's attempt to control and stifle the colonies. As tensions rose, members of the colonies began organizing rebellious protests, such as the Boston Tea Party, in response to particular tax laws that were passed. These inciting reasons and protests led up to the official start of the American
Revolution.

Important Events and Groups Leading up to American Revolution
Over several years, various events and groups contributed to the rebellion that became a revolution:

Sons of Liberty – This was the protest group headed by Samuel Adams that incited the Revolution.
Boston Massacre – On March 5, 1770, British soldiers fired on a crowd and killed five people.
Committees of Correspondence – These were set up throughout the colonies to transmit revolutionary ideas and create a unified response.
The Boston Tea Party – On December 6, 1773, the Sons of Liberty, dressed as Mohawks, dumped tea into the harbor from a British ship to protest the tea tax. The harsh British response further aggravated the situation.
First Continental Congress – This was held in 1774 to list grievances and develop a response, including boycotts. It was attended by all the colonies with the exception of Georgia.
The Shot Heard Round the World – In April, 1775, English soldiers on their way to confiscate arms in Concord passed through Lexington, Massachusetts and met the colonial militia called the Minutemen. A fight ensued. In Concord, a larger group of Minutemen forced the British to retreat.

Original 13 Colonies and Major Turning Points of the Revolution
The original 13 colonies were: Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North
Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Virginia. Delaware was the first state to ratify the constitution.
The major turning points of the American Revolution were:
The actions of the Second Continental Congress – This body established the Continental Army and chose George Washington as its commanding general. They allowed printing of money and created government offices.
'Common Sense' – Published in 1776 by Thomas Paine, this pamphlet calling for independence was widely distributed.
The Declaration of Independence – Written by Thomas Jefferson, it was ratified on July 4, 1776 by the Continental Congress assembled in Philadelphia.
Alliance with France – Benjamin Franklin negotiated an agreement with France to fight with the Americans in 1778.
Treaty of Paris – Signaled the official end of the war in 1782, granted independence to the colonies, and gave them generous territorial

Founding of a Nation
Each of the colonies overthrew the British representation within their own colonies and established their own state constitutions. The newly formed 13 states, with the guidance and primary authorship of Thomas Jefferson, unanimously adopted the Declaration of Independence, which officially separated the colonies from British rule. Shortly thereafter, the Second Continental Congress, made up of state representatives, met together to ratify the Articles of Confederation, which was the original constitution for the United States of America, outlining how sovereignty would be shared among the states in the new country. With the assistance of the French, the Americans were able to fend off a large scale naval and military invasion from the British and secure their revolution.

Confederation Period
The Confederation Period (1783-1788) was the period in U.S. history directly following the American Revolution. The Articles of Confederation held the states loosely, and the states were largely self-governing and did not have much political unity. In this format, the federal government was very weak, with no chief executive or judicial system.
The weak federal government was bound to continue degrading in unity and would eventually fail if left without reform. In 1787, political leaders met to write a new constitution with more thoroughly written policies that would establish federal powers, while still sharing power with the state governments. This new constitution ended the confederation period and led the way into the Federalist Era.

Federalist Era (1788-1801)
The 1787 convention that wrote the new Constitution of the United States of America established three government branches, the legislative
(making laws) the executive (enforcing laws), and the judicial (interpreting and judging laws). Having three branches with separate powers helped to provide what is known as checks and balances in government, so that no one branch will have too much power. This was meant to maintain liberty and state powers, while giving the federal government enough power to effectively govern the new country. The new constitution also established voting practices on the individual and state level, including the controversial topic of slavery and voting practices for states that did not abolish slavery. At the this point, some northern states had made slavery illegal, but the constitution of the time allowed for the states to determine their own laws on the matter. The Federalist Era placed more power in the hands of the federal government, but also established a place for political parties to advocate for the rights of the people.

Bill of Rights and Amendments
Over the next few years, the need for revision to the constitution was made clear. In 1789, congress adopted several amendments to the constitution, mostly dealing with individual rights, such as the right to freedom of speech, the right to bear arms, and several others. The first ten amendments are called 'The Bill of Rights.' In the process of instituting these amendments, it was also laid out that any declarations (such as rights or laws) not specifically granted in the constitution or amendments to the constitution are reserved for the states or lower jurisdictions to establish.

Jeffersonian Era (1801-1817)
The Jeffersonian Era is defined by the influences of Thomas Jefferson and his political activism. In the Federalist Era, many of the political voices advocated for power going to those with wealth and property, rather than the equal rights of all people. Jefferson's political outlook was called American Republicanism (now the Democratic-Republican Party), which opposed aristocracy, elitism, and corruption in government. During
Jefferson's presidency, he made significant strides toward a more inclusive voting system. He also managed to purchase Louisiana from France at an extremely reasonable price, thus roughly doubling the size of the United States at the time. From 1812-1815, a war ensued between the United Kingdom and the United States due to the British cutting off trade routes and fostering hostility between the Native Americans and the United States. The war concluded with no changes to boundaries, leading to the beginning of the Era of Good Feelings.

Era of Good Feelings and the Jacksonian Era
The Era of Good Feelings (1817-1825) followed the Jeffersonian Era, and was marked by the collapse of the Federalist system.
President James Monroe attempted to deter the partisan political system and prevent political parties from driving national politics. During the Era of Good Feelings, there was a temporary sense of national security and a desire for unity in America following the war of previous years. Following Monroe's presidency, votes were largely split between the two major parties of the time, the Whigs and the Democrats.
During the Jacksonian Era (1825-1849), voting rights were extended to most white men over 21 years old and revised other federal policies. The policy favored the idea of election by the 'common man,' which expanded voting rights, while continuing to deny rights to women, Native
Americans and African Americans. This period also saw an increase in expansionism, encouraging territorial expansion to the west in the name of manifest destiny.
During this period, issues of slavery were largely avoided at first, though they grew over the coming years, leading into the Civil War Era.

Civil War Era (1850-1865)
The Civil War Era began with continued push from the northern states to expand democratic rights to Black people. The constitution of the time allowed for slavery to be a state's right to determine and enforce.
Eleven states (with two to join later) determined to secede from the United States of America and become their own nation. In these eleven states, slavery was a major mode and means for the economy, and despite the overt ethical issues with slavery, these southern states were adamant about maintaining their way of life. The official Confederacy was formed in 1861 and continued until the end of the civil war in 1865.

Reconstruction Era (1865-1877)

Reconstruction and 13th, 14th, and 15thAmendments
Reconstruction was the period from 1865 to 1877, during which the South was under strict control of the U.S. government. In March, 1867, all state governments of the former Confederacy were terminated, and military occupation began. Military commanders called for constitutional conventions to reconstruct the state governments, to which delegates were to be elected by universal male suffrage. After a state government was in operation and the state had ratified the 14th Amendment, its representatives were admitted to Congress. Three constitutional amendments from 1865 to 1870, which tried to rectify the problems caused by slavery, became part of the Reconstruction effort. The 13th Amendment declared slavery illegal. The 14th Amendment made all persons born or naturalized in the country U.S. citizens, and forbade any state to interfere with their fundamental civil rights.    The 15th Amendment made it illegal to deny individuals the right to vote on the grounds of race. In his 1876 election campaign, President Rutherford B. Hayes promised to withdraw troops from the South, and did so in 1877.

Major Changes in Industry in the Late 1800s
Important events during this time of enormous business growth and large-scale exploitation of natural resources include:
Industrialization – Like the rest of the world, the United States' entry into the Industrial Age was marked by many new inventions and the mechanization of factories.
Railroad expansion – The Transcontinental Railroad was built from 1865 to 1969. Railroad tracks stretched over 35,000 miles in 1865, but that distance reached 240,000 miles by 1910. The raw materials and manufactured goods needed for the railroads kept mines and factories very busy.
Gold and silver mining – Mines brought many prospectors to the West from 1850 to about 1875, but mining corporations soon took over.
Cattle ranching – This was a large-scale enterprise beginning in the late 1860s, but by the 1880s open ranges were being fenced and plowed for farming and pastures. Millions of farmers moved into the high plains, establishing the 'Bread Basket,' which was the major wheat growing area of the country.

Gilded Age (1877-1895)
The Gilded Age, from the 1870s to 1890, was so named because of the enormous wealth and grossly opulent lifestyle enjoyed by a handful of powerful families. This was the time when huge mansions were built as summer 'cottages' in Newport, Rhode Island, and great lodges were built in mountain areas for the pleasure of families such as the Vanderbilts, Ascots, and Rockefellers.
Control of the major industries was held largely by the following men:
Jay Gould—railroads
Andrew Carnegie—steel
John D. Rockefeller Sr.—oil
Philip Danforth Armour—meatpacking
J. P. Morgan—banking
John Jacob Astor—fur pelts
Cornelius Vanderbilt—steamboat shipping
These men were were known as Robber Barons for their ruthless business practices and exploitation of workers. Of course, all of these heads of industry diversified and became involved in multiple business ventures. To curb cutthroat competition, particularly among the railroads, and to prohibit restrained trade, Congress created the Interstate Commerce Commission and the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. Neither of these, however, was enforced.

Immigration Trends in Late 1800s
The population of the United States doubled between 1860 and 1890, with the arrival of 10 million immigrants. Most lived in the north.
Cities and their slums grew tremendously because of immigration and industrialization. While previous immigrants had come from Germany, Scandinavia, and Ireland, the 1880s saw a new wave of immigrants from Italy, Poland, Hungary, Bohemia, and Greece, as well as Jewish groups from central and eastern Europe, especially Russia. The Roman Catholic population grew from 1.6 million in 1850 to 12 million in 1900, a growth that ignited an anti-Catholic backlash from the anti-Catholic Know-Nothing Party of the 1880s and the Ku Klux Klan. Exploited immigrant workers started labor protests in the 1870s, and the Knights of Labor was formed in 1878, calling for sweeping social and economic reform. Its membership reached 700,000 by 1886. Eventually, this organization was replaced by the American Federation of Labor, headed by Samuel Gompers.

Progressive Era (1896–1916)
The Progressive Era, which was the time period from the 1890s to the 1920s, got its name from progressive, reform-minded political leaders who wanted to export a just and rational social order to the rest of the world while increasing trade with foreign markets. Consequently, the United States interfered in a dispute between Venezuela and Britain. America invoked the Monroe Doctrine and sided with Cuba in its struggle for independence from Spain. The latter resulted in the Spanish-American Wars in 1898 that ended with Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam becoming American protectorates at the same time the United States annexed Hawaii. In 1900, America declared an Open Door policy with China to support its independence and open markets. In 1903, Theodore Roosevelt helped Panama become independent of Columbia, and then secured the right to build the Panama Canal. Roosevelt also negotiated the peace treaty to end the Russo-Japanese War, which earned him the Nobel Peace prize.
He then sent the American fleet on a world cruise to display his country's power.

Domestic Accomplishments of the Progressive Era
To the Progressives, promoting law and order meant cleaning up city governments to make them honest and efficient, bringing more democracy and humanity to state governments, and establishing a core of social workers to improve slum housing, health, and education. Also during the Progressive Era, the national government strengthened or created the following regulatory agencies, services, and acts to oversee business enterprises:
Passed in 1906, the Hepburn Act reinforced the Interstate Commerce Commission. In 1902, Roosevelt used the Justice Department and lawsuits to try to break monopolies and enforce the Sherman Anti-Trust Act.
The Clayton Anti-Trust Act was added in 1914.
From 1898 to 1910, the Forest Service guided lumber companies in the conservation and more efficient use of woodland resources under the direction of Gifford Pinchot.
In 1906, the Pure Food and Drug Act was passed to protect consumers from fraudulent labeling and adulteration of products.
In 1913, the Federal Reserve System was established to supervise banking and commerce. In 1914, the Fair Trade Commission was established to ensure fair competition.

World War I (1917–1919)
When World War I broke out in 1914, America declared neutrality. The huge demand for war goods by the Allies broke a seven-year industrial stagnation and gave American factories full-time work. The country's sympathies lay mostly with the Allies, and before long American business and banking were heavily invested in an Allied victory.
In 1916, Woodrow Wilson campaigned on the slogan 'He kept us out of war.'
However, when the British ship the Lusitania was torpedoed in 1915 by a German submarine and many Americans were killed, the United States broke its neutrality and directly entered the war. Eventually, when it was proven that Germany was trying to incite Mexico and Japan into attacking the United States, Wilson declared war in 1917, even though America was unprepared.
Nonetheless, America quickly armed and transferred sufficient troops to Europe, bringing the Allies to victory in 1918.

Roaring Twenties and the Great Depression
The Roaring Twenties (1920–1929) refers to the economically successful period of time following World War I. New technologies such as automobiles, new forms of media such as films, and new communication technology became widely available. In the wake of industrial growth and revolution, culture shifted toward more modern sentiments, and moved toward a more practical approach to life. New forms of art and music were born and thrived during this period, and during this timeframe civil rights were expanded to allow women to vote. In 1929, the stock market crashed and caused the end of the Roaring Twenties and the beginning of the Great Depression, which lasted from 1930 until 1941. The Great Depression was characterized by high unemployment rates and a slow-moving market with little profit to be made. Many banks failed during this time, and there was no governmental protection against bank failures. As a result, many depositors withdrew their money from banks to protect themselves, removing much of the money from the economy in an effect called economic contraction.

World War II (1939–1945)
World War II began in 1939. A. with World War I, the United States tried to stay out of World War II, even though the Lend-Lease program transferred munitions to Great Britain.
However, on December 7, 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in Hawaii.
Since Japan was an ally of Germany, the United States declared war on all the Axis powers. Although there was fighting in both Europe and the Pacific, the decision was made to concentrate on defeating Hitler first. Since it did not have combat within its borders, the United States became the great manufacturer of goods and munitions for the war effort. Women went to work in the factories, while the men entered the military. All facets of American life were centered on the war effort, including rationing, metal collections, and buying war bonds. The benefit of this production was an end to the economic depression.
The influx of American personnel and supplies eventually brought victory in Europe in April of 1945, and in Asia the following August.

Major Programs and Events Resulting from the Cold War
After World War II, the Soviet Union kept control of Eastern Europe, including half of Germany. Communism spread around the world. Resulting fears led to:
The Truman Doctrine (1947) – This was a policy designed to protect free peoples everywhere against oppression.
The Marshall Plan (1948) – This devoted $12 billion to rebuild Western Europe and strengthen its defenses.
The Organization of American States (1948) – This was established to bolster democratic relations in the Americas.
The Berlin Blockade (1948-49) – The Soviets tried to starve out West Berlin, so the United States provided massive supply drops by air.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (1949) – This was formed to militarily link the United States and western Europe so that an attack on one was an attack on both.
The Korean War (1950-53) – This divided the country into the communist North and the democratic South.
The McCarthy era (1950-54) – Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin held hearings on supposed Communist conspiracies that ruined innocent reputations and led to the blacklisting of suspected sympathizers in the government, Hollywood, and the media.

Major Events of the 1960s
The 1960s were a tumultuous time for the United States. Major events included:
The Cuban Missile Crisis (1961) – This was a stand-off between the United States and the Soviet Union over a build-up of missiles in
Cuba. Eventually, the Soviets stopped their shipments and a nuclear war was averted.
The assassinations of President Kennedy (1963), Senator Robert Kennedy (1968), and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. (1968).
The Civil Rights Movement – Protest marches were held across the nation to draw attention to the plight of Black citizens. From 1964 to 1968, race riots exploded in more than 100 cities.
The Vietnam War (1964-73) – This resulted in a military draft. There was heavy involvement of American personnel and money. There were also protest demonstrations, particularly on college campuses. At Kent State, several students died after being shot by National Guardsmen.
Major legislation – Legislation passed during this decade included the Civil Rights Act, the Clean Air Act, and the Water Quality Act.
This decade also saw the creation of the Peace Corps, Medicare, and the War on Poverty, in which billions were appropriated for education, urban redevelopment, and public housing.

Presidents and Vice Presidents from 1972 to 1974
In a two-year time span, the United States had two presidents and two vice presidents. This situation resulted first from the resignation of Vice President Spiro T. Agnew in October of 1973 because of alleged kickbacks. President Richard M. Nixon then appointed House
Minority Leader Gerald R. Ford to be vice president. This was accomplished through Senate ratification, a process that had been devised after
Harry Truman succeeded to the presidency upon the death of Franklin Roosevelt and went through nearly four years of his presidency without a vice president.
Nixon resigned the presidency in August of 1974 because some Republican party members broke into Democratic headquarters at the Watergate building in Washington, DC, and the president participated in covering up the crime. Ford succeeded Nixon, and had to appoint another vice president. He chose Nelson Rockefeller, former governor of New York.

Post-war Era and the Civil Rights Era
The Post-War Era (1945-1964) was a time of economic recovery and general growth in America. The wars of the past several decades inspired a more active foreign policy to deter such violent wars from occurring again. This largely focused on the Soviet Union and the expansion of Communism around the world. Several countries at this time participated in both a space race and an arms race, a rush to develop and accumulate more powerful weapons, particularly nuclear weapons, to become the world's strongest military power. The political differences and concerns over powerful armaments eventually led to the Cold War, Vietnam War, and Korean War. The 60s were also a major pivot-point for civil rights, leading into the Civil Rights Era (1965-1980). Due to the protesting and activism of several groups, including Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and the NAACP, civil rights landmarks were made regarding racial equality, including laws dealing with segregation, employment opportunity, and voting rights.

Reagan Era (1981–1991)
The Reagan Era is an era largely describing the foreign policy of the United States during the 1980s and sometimes viewed as extending through the 1990s or early-2000s. During this period, conservative reforms worked to increase military spending while also cutting taxes and reducing or restricting the involvement of the national government. Ronald Reagan's financial policy revolved around the idea that if the government stepped back, the economy could grow, which would in turn help to reduce national debt.

1990s and Early-2000s
The 1990s and early-2000s were characterized largely by new economic developments surrounding the availability of computers and the development of the internet, allowing new technology to drive the economy in new ways. The economy boomed in the late 1990s leading into the early 2000s.
Amid all of the economic success, the United States faced attacks by terrorist groups such as al-Qaeda, which caused alarm and greater restriction to national security and border control. The most influential of these terror attacks was the September 11, 2001 airliner hijacking, where al-Qaeda members took over four airplanes and used them as weapons to crash into key governmental and trade buildings. These attacks triggered a focus of American attention on terrorist groups, and led to several wars in Afghanistan and Iraq.

2008 to Present
Following the economic success of the 1990s and 2000s, the housing industry collapsed, leading to what is known as the Great Recession in 2008. In 2008, President Barack Obama was elected as the country's first African-American president. The war on terror continued until 2011, when Obama announced the death of Osama bin Laden, the al-Qaeda leader of the time.
Obama's primary focus during his presidency included large stimulus packages and reforms to health insurance programs, an attempt to make healthcare affordable and available to all Americans. In 2016, President Donald Trump took office.
His campaigns centered around immigration laws and tax reforms. Other major trends within this time period include a new wave of social equality issues surrounding same-sex rights and racial tension issues within America.