Social Science: U.S. Government (Review)

Principles of the Constitution
The six basic principles of the Constitution are:
1.  Popular Sovereignty – The people establish government and give power to it; the government can function only with the consent of the people.
2. Limited Government – The Constitution specifies limits on government authority, and no official or entity is above the law.
3. Separation of Powers – Power is divided among three government branches: the legislative (Congress), the executive (President), and the judicial (federal courts).
4.  Checks and Balances – This is a system that enforces the separation of powers and ensures that each branch has the authority and ability to restrain the powers of the other two branches, thus preventing tyranny.
5. Judicial Review – Judges in the federal courts ensure that no act of government is in violation of the Constitution. If an act is unconstitutional, the judicial branch has the power to nullify it.
6.  Federalism – This is the division of power between the central government and local governments, which limits the power of the federal government and allows states to deal with local problems.

Classic Forms of Government
Forms of government that have appeared throughout history include:
Feudalism – This is based on the rule of local lords who are loyal to the king and control the lives and production of those who work on their land.
Classical republic – This form is a representative democracy. Small groups of elected leaders represent the interests of the electorate.
Absolute monarchy – A king or queen has complete control of the military and government.
Authoritarianism – An individual or group has unlimited authority. There is no system in place to restrain the power of the government.
Dictatorship – Those in power are not held responsible to the people.
Autocracy – This is rule by one person (despot), not necessarily a monarch, who uses power tyrannically.
Oligarchy – A small, usually self-appointed elite rules a region.
Liberal democracy – This is a government based on the consent of the people that protects individual rights and freedoms from any intolerance by the majority.
Totalitarianism – All facets of the citizens' lives are controlled by the government.

Influences of Philosophers on Political Study
Ancient Greek philosophers Aristotle and Plato believed political science would lead to order in political matters, and that this scientifically organized order would create stable, just societies.
Thomas Aquinas adapted the ideas of Aristotle to a Christian perspective. His ideas stated that individuals have certain rights, but also certain duties, and that these rights and duties should determine the type and extent of government rule. In stating that laws should limit the role of government, he laid the groundwork for ideas that would eventually become modern constitutionalism.
Niccolò Machiavelli, author of The Prince, was a proponent of politics based solely on power.

Parliamentary and Democratic Systems of Government
In a parliamentary system, government involves a legislature and a variety of political parties. The head of government, usually a Prime Minister, is typically the head of the dominant party. A head of state can be elected, or this position can be taken by a monarch, such as in Great
Britain's constitutional monarchy system.
In a democratic system of government, the people elect their government representatives. The term democracy is a Greek term that means 'for the rule of the people.' There are two forms of democracy—direct and indirect. In a direct democracy, each issue or election is decided by a vote where each individual is counted separately. An indirect democracy employs a legislature that votes on issues that affect large number of people whom the legislative members represent. Democracy can exist as a Parliamentary system or a Presidential system. The US is a presidential, indirect democracy.

Bill of Rights
The United States Bill of Rights was based on principles established by the Magna Carta in 1215, the 1688 English Bill of Rights, and the 1776 Virginia Bill of Rights. In 1791, the federal government added 10 amendments to the United States Constitution that provided the following protections:

1. Freedom of speech, religion, peaceful assembly, petition of the government, and petition of the press
2. The right to keep and bear arms
3. No quartering of soldiers on private property without the consent of the owner
4. Regulations on government search and seizure
5. Provisions concerning prosecution
6. The right to a speedy, public trial and the calling of witnesses
7. The right to trial by jury
8. Freedom from excessive bail or cruel punishment
9. These rights are not necessarily the only rights
10. Powers not prohibited by the Constitution are reserved to the states

Making a Formal Amendment to the Constitution
So far, there have been only 27 amendments to the federal Constitution. There are four different ways to change the constitution: two methods for proposal and two methods for ratification:
1.  An amendment is proposed by a two-thirds vote in each house of Congress and ratified by three-fourths of the state legislatures. A. amendment is proposed by a two-thirds vote in each house of Congress and ratified by three-fourths of the states in special conventions called for that purpose. A. amendment is proposed by a national convention that is called by
Congress at the request of two-thirds of the state legislatures and ratified by three-fourths of the state legislatures.
4.  An amendment is proposed by a national convention that is called by Congress at the request of two-thirds of the state legislatures and ratified by three-fourths of the states in special conventions called for that purpose.

Division of Powers
The division of powers in the federal government system is as follows:
National – This level can coin money, regulate interstate and foreign trade, raise and maintain armed forces, declare war, govern United
States territories and admit new states, and conduct foreign relations.
Concurrent – This level can levy and collect taxes, borrow money, establish courts, define crimes and set punishments, and claim private property for public use.
State – This level can regulate trade and business within the state, establish public schools, pass license requirements for professionals, regulate alcoholic beverages, conduct elections, and establish local governments.

There are three types of delegated powers granted by the Constitution:
1.  Expressed or enumerated powers – These are specifically spelled out in the Constitution.
2.  Implied – These are not expressly stated, but are reasonably suggested by the expressed powers.
3.  Inherent – These are powers not expressed by the Constitution but ones that national governments have historically possessed, such as granting diplomatic recognition.
Powers can also be classified as reserved or exclusive. Reserved powers are not granted to the national government, but not denied to the states. Exclusive powers are those reserved to the national government, including concurrent powers.

Stages of Extending Suffrage in the U.S.
Originally, the Constitution of 1789 provided the right to vote only to white male property owners. Through the years, suffrage was extended through the following five stages.
1.  In the early 1800s, states began to eliminate property ownership and tax payment qualifications. B. 1810, there were no more religious tests for voting. In the late 1800s, the 15th Amendment protected citizens from being denied the right to vote because of race or color.
3.  In 1920, the 19th Amendment prohibited the denial of the right to vote because of gender, and women were given the right to vote.
4.  Passed in 1961 and ratified in 1964, the 23rd Amendment added the voters of the District of Columbia to the presidential electorate and eliminated the poll tax as a condition for voting in federal elections. The Voting
Rights Act of 1965 prohibited disenfranchisement through literacy tests and various other means of discrimination.
5.  In 1971, the 26th Amendment set the minimum voting age at 18 years of age.

Major Supreme Court Cases
Out of the many Supreme Court rulings, several have had critical historical importance. These include:
Marbury v. Madison (1803) – This ruling established judicial review as a power of the Supreme Court.
Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) – This decision upheld property rights over human rights in the case of a slave who had been transported to a free state by his master, but was still considered a slave.
Brown v. Board of Education (1954) – The Court ruled that segregation was a violation of the Equal Protection Clause and that the 'separate but equal' practice in education was unconstitutional. This decision overturned the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson ruling that permitted segregation if facilities were equal.
Miranda v. Arizona (1966) – This ruling compelled the reading of Miranda rights to those arrested for crimes the law. It ensured that confessions could not be illegally obtained and that citizen rights to fair trials and protection under the law would be upheld.

Famous Speeches in U.S. History that Defined Government Policy, Foreign Relations, and American Spirit
Among the best-known speeches and famous lines known to modern Americans are the following:

The Gettysburg Address – Made by Abraham Lincoln on November 19, 1863, it dedicated the Gettysburg battleground's cemetery.
The Fourteen Points – Made by Woodrow Wilson on January 18, 1918, this outlined Wilson's plans for peace and the League of Nations.
Address to Congress – Made by Franklin Roosevelt on December 8, 1941, it declared war on Japan and described the attack on Pearl
Harbor as 'a day which will live in infamy.'
Inaugural Address – Made by John F. Kennedy on January 20, 1961, it contained the famous line: 'Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.'
Berlin Address – Made by John F. Kennedy on June 26, 1963, it contained the famous line 'Ich bin ein Berliner,' which expressed empathy for West Berliners in their conflict with the Soviet Union.
'I Have a Dream' and 'I See the Promised Land' – Made by Martin Luther King, Jr. on August 28, 1963 and April 3, 1968, respectively, these speeches were hallmarks of the Civil Rights Movement.
Brandenburg Gate speech – Made by Ronald Reagan on June 12, 1987, this speech was about the Berlin Wall and the end of the Cold War. It contained the famous line 'Tear down this wall.'

Closed and Open Primaries in a Direct Primary System
The direct primary system is a means for members of a political party to participate in the selection of a candidate from their party to compete against the other party's candidate in a general election. A closed primary is a party nominating election in which only declared party members can vote. Party membership is usually established by registration. Currently, 26 states and the District of Columbia use this system. An open primary is a party nominating election in which any qualified voter can take part. The voter makes a public choice at the polling place about which primary to participate in, and the choice does not depend on any registration or previous choices. A blanket primary, which allowed voters to vote in the primaries of both parties, was used at various times by three states. The Supreme Court ruled against this practice in 2000.

Important Documents in United States History and Government
The following are among the greatest American documents because of their impact on foreign and domestic policy:
Declaration of Independence (1776)
The Articles of Confederation (1777)
The Constitution (1787) and the Bill of Rights (1791)
The Northwest Ordinance (1787)
The Federalist Papers (1787-88)
George Washington's Inaugural Address (1789) and Farewell Address (1796)
The Alien and Sedition Act (1798)
The Louisiana Purchase Treaty (1803)
The Monroe Doctrine (1823); The Missouri Compromise (1830)
The Compromise of 1850
The Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)
The Homestead Act (1862)
The Emancipation Proclamation (1863)
The agreement to purchase Alaska (1866)
The Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890)
Theodore Roosevelt's Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1905)
The Social Security Act (1935) and other acts of the New Deal in the 1930s; The Truman Doctrine (1947); The Marshall Plan (1948)
The Civil Rights Act (1964)

Federal Taxes
The four types of federal taxes are:
Income taxes on individuals – This is a complex system because of demands for various exemptions and rates. Further, the schedule of rates can be lowered or raised according to economic conditions in order to stimulate or restrain economic activity. For example, a tax cut can provide an economic stimulus, while a tax increase can slow down the rate of inflation.
Personal income tax generates about five times as much as corporate taxes.
Rates are based on an individual's income, and range from 10 to 35 percent.

Income taxes on corporations – The same complexity of exemptions and rates exists for corporations as individuals. Taxes can be raised or lowered according to the need to stimulate or restrain the economy.
Excise taxes – These are taxes on specific goods such as tobacco, liquor, automobiles, gasoline, air travel, and luxury items, or on activities such as highway usage by trucks.
Customs duties – These are taxes imposed on imported goods. They serve to regulate trade between the United States and other

United States Currency System
The Constitution of 1787 gave the United States Congress the central authority to print or coin money and to regulate its value.
Before this time, states were permitted to maintain separate currencies. The currency system is based on a modified gold standard. There is an enormous store of gold to back up United States currency housed at Fort Knox, Kentucky. Paper money is actually Federal Reserve notes and coins. It is the job of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing in the Treasury Department to design plates, special types of paper, and other security measures for bills and bonds. This money is put into general circulation by the Treasury and Federal Reserve Banks, and is taken out of circulation when worn out. Coins are made at the Bureau of the Mint in Philadelphia, Denver, and San Francisco.

Employment Act of 1946
The Employment Act of 1946 established the following entities to combat unemployment:
The Council of Economic Advisers (CEA) – Composed of a chair and two other members appointed by the President and approved by the Senate, this council assists the President with the development and implementation of U.S. economic policy. The Council members and their staff, located in the Executive Office, are professionals in economics and statistics who forecast economic trends and provide analysis based on evidence-based research.
The Economic Report of the President – This is presented every January by the President to Congress. Based on the work of the Council, the report recommends a program for maximizing employment, and may also recommend legislation.
Joint Economic Committee (JEC) – This is a committee composed of 10 members of the House and 10 members of the Senate that makes a report early each year on its continuous study of the economy. Study is conducted through hearings and research, and the report is made in response to the president's recommendations.

Qualifications of a U.S. Citizen
Anyone born in the US, born abroad to a US citizen, or who has gone through a process of naturalization to become a citizen, is considered a citizen of the United States. It is possible to lose US citizenship as a result of conviction of certain crimes such as treason.
Citizenship may also be lost if a citizen pledges an oath to another country or serves in the military of a country engaged in hostilities with the US. A US citizen can also choose to hold dual citizenship, work as an expatriate in another country without losing US citizenship, or even renounce citizenship if he or she so chooses.

Rights, Duties, and Responsibilities Granted to or Expected from US Citizens
Citizens are granted certain rights under the US government.
The most important of these are defined in the Bill of Rights, and include freedom of speech, religion, assembly, and a variety of other rights the government is not allowed to remove.
Duties of a U.S. citizen include:
Paying taxes
Loyalty to the government, though the US does not prosecute those who criticize or seek to change the government
Support and defend the Constitution
Serve in the Armed Forces as required by law
Obeying laws as set forth by the various levels of government.
Responsibilities of a U.S. citizen include:
Voting in elections
Respecting one another's rights and not infringing upon them
Staying informed about various political and national issues
Respecting one another's beliefs