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Need for Sensitivity to Diversity of Culture
As America becomes more culturally diverse, schools will be increasingly comprised of a mix of different races, religions, and socioeconomic levels. Counselors need to be aware of the significance of these factors in the learning environments of students. Certain ethnic groups may be victims of social and economic hierarchies, which can affect the availability of technology and other education-related amenities. Counselors can act as non-judgmental liaisons for students if they are sensitive to some of the situational differences defined by race. They can also work with groups of students on such issues as assertiveness and empowerment. A counselor should also consider the problems faced by second-language learners, as well as the religious and cultural factors that may affect academic and social success.
Becoming More Culturally Aware The first step in becoming more culturally aware is to recognize the need to do so. Counselors who work with a diversity of races and socioeconomic groups should invest the time and attention to understand the roots and ramifications of the differences. There are cultural sensitivity training sessions available, often through the school district. Although cultural sensitivity training is becoming more commonplace and is even required in some districts, counselors and their programs will be best served by a proactive approach. Some counselors reach beyond the school district to surrounding cultural enclaves, to further their understanding of a particular culture. Some counselors take further action by becoming involved in addressing policy and practices that better the overall academic achievement of a particularly underserved group, although the effectiveness of this has not been clearly demonstrated.
Promoting Cultural Sensitivity in the School Environment Cultural sensitivity helps counselors recognize culturally based differences within the school environment. Counselors observe interactions affected by cultural differences, and then address any problems while maintaining sensitivity to both the minority and the majority cultures. Counselors can involve school staff and counselors in discussions regarding the methods and policies for addressing cultural differences and conflicts among students, as well as between teachers and students. Certain school practices can lead to an appreciation and celebration of these differences. These practices can include talking with students and parents and actively learning about different cultures. Increasing cultural awareness within a school environment can lead to a rich, dynamic community, and can improve the value of a well-designed
Professional Skills and Competencies Related to Cultural Awareness Counselors striving to attain an environment of cultural sensitivity can begin the process by first presenting a professional demeanor toward all students and other members of the school community. It is important to recognize that cultural and socioeconomic differences can affect behavior and appearance, and to avoid responding negatively or differently to these manifestations. It is also important to remember that every person, including the counselor, lives with certain presuppositions, and to be cognizant of these presuppositions while developing an increased understanding of cultural differences and misunderstandings. Some of the bases for these misunderstandings include racism, stereotyping, socioeconomic oppression, and discrimination. Additionally, cultural differences could be gender-based, belief-based, or based on other distinguishing characteristics. Being aware of these cultural layers and learning to respond with dignity and respect can provide a healthy example for the school community.
Limitations of Language When Addressing Issues of Cultural Diversity Counselors who have been sensitized to cultural differences, and trained in strategies for addressing these differences in the school environment, may still experience difficulty finding the right words when communicating with school staff, counselors, students and the rest of the school community. There is no one way to solve this problem; however, counselors should recognize that cultural differences can stem from historical traditions, racial or ethnic classifications, economic status, or cosmology. These differences can affect how people view and respond to life experiences, and can often divide populations into groups of similar experience and perception. Awareness of some of the roots of cultural diversity and cultural bias can help the counselor develop terminology for addressing issues of diversity and integrating cultural sensitivity into various aspects of the counseling program.
Components of Culture Before broaching the subject of culture, counselors should first define culture and describe its influence. Listed below are some of the key components of culture:
It is also important to remember that cultural distinctions are often rooted in historical tradition, supported by generations of practice and affirmation. Working with a culturally diverse population is best approached by recognizing and respecting the roots of culture.
Race and Segregation in the School Environment Race can also be defined by biogenetic factors, socioeconomic grouping, distinctive traits and behaviors, language, traditions, and rituals. Individually or as an aggregate, these factors often play a part in racial discrimination and segregation. Segregation also may be based on economic status, academic achievement, level of fluency in English, or disability. In this sense, race can be viewed as a political and psychological concept. Counselors working in the school community to dissipate cultural biases and misunderstandings will be well served to recognize that race is a concept defined primarily by these behavioral and economic factors.
Parameters of Ethnicity In contrast to race, ethnicity is rooted in national origin and/or distinctive cultural patterns. In other words, ethnicity is based on more easily identifiable factors. Groups of students with the same ethnicity share the same general ancestral background. A group that shares ethnicity will often share religious beliefs; attitudes toward family, school and career; and customs, traditions and rituals. These beliefs and traditions are often reinforced by the fact that individuals who share an ethnicity tend to socialize together, providing a continuum of culture. However, counselors should be sensitive to the fact that individuals can present degrees of assimilation, developing practices and beliefs that differ from their ethnic origins. Ethnicity is generally associated with family, although it can also be defined by religion, race, and cultural history.
Oppression Although oppression may be rooted in cultural or racist biases, and is usually expressed through inequities of power or benefits. The general psychological basis for oppression is a fallacious assumption by one group that another group is intrinsically inferior or incapable of a particular quality of life. Unfortunately, these misperceptions often are perpetuated by the conditions that result from them. Individuals or groups who possess the power or benefits (e.g. better paying jobs, better access to technology, and better access to transportation) inherently define oppressed individuals as inferior by their lack of these quality of life indicators. Oppressed groups may internalize this definition, further perpetuating the oppression and exploitation. Oppressed individuals or groups will often accept their subservient position in the school or work environment because they do not feel empowered to challenge the dominant group. Oppressive tactics include exploitation, intimidation, and violence.
Types The forms of oppression can be placed into five general categories.
he first category is individualized oppression, which encompasses oppression stemming from assumptions of inferiority in another person based on race or culture. This process extrapolated to the group level becomes cultural oppression, which is comprised of actions or attitudes toward a cultural group that result in the targeted group changing its behavior. Systemic or institutional oppression is hierarchical practices that inherently discriminate against certain groups in the distribution of resources. Oppression that is internalized by the targeted group is insidious because the oppressed group believes and perpetuates its own perceived inferiority. Conversely, external oppression describes actions or beliefs targeting a particular group because they are perceived by others as inferior. Instances of oppression may fall into more than one category.
Multicultural Counseling While developing a counseling relationship with a student or students, it is important to recognize whether multicultural factors obtain. Multicultural counseling occurs when the race or ethnicity of the students is different from that of the counselor. The multicultural counseling relationship will necessarily involve two sets of expectations, perceptions, social environments, beliefs and backgrounds, often beyond the usual disparities between two people. Sensitivity to culturally-based differences can be helpful in communication and setting expectations. The five major cultural groups identified by the Association of Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD) are African/Black, Asian, Caucasian/European, Hispanic/Latino/a, and Native American. Other cultural groups can pertain to gender, sexual orientation, religious beliefs, etc. A counselor should try to remain aware of multicultural counseling without falling into a biased taxonomy.
Forms of Oppression That Can Affect Distribution of Resources The terms below identify oppressive belief systems targeting specific groups. Often, public schools and other societal entities distribute resources unfairly based on these perceptions: Ableism – targeting persons identified by different abilities/disabilities Ageism – targeting persons younger than 18 or older than 50 Beautyism – targeting persons who are obese or otherwise fall outside of expected appearance norms Classism – targeting persons based on income level or socioeconomic class Familyism – targeting persons whose family falls outside of expected norms, such as single parents, same gender parents, or foster families Heterosexism and Transgenderism – targeting persons who are homosexual, lesbian, bisexual, two-spirit, intersex, or transgendered Linguicism – targeting persons because they do not speak the dominant language, or do so with a marked accent Racism – targeting persons of another color or of mixed race Religionism – targeting persons who do not practice the dominant religion Sexism – targeting persons of a different sex
Ensuring That Counselors are Competent in Multicultural Environments Counselors who will be working with different cultural or ethnic groups are best served by not only receiving initial training in multicultural counseling, but also by attending workshops and other instruction in the field on an ongoing basis. Many schools and districts with a diverse student body require this of school counselors. Counselors who receive ongoing training in multicultural counseling will be less likely to impose their own belief systems and cultural insensitivity on the counseling relationship, and more likely to consider cultural differences when communicating and setting goals with students. School counselors and counselors can usually recognize when they are incorporating cultural sensitivity in their counseling methods by assessing the success of the sessions. If a counselor or counseling program is operating with multicultural competence, there should be no significant differentiation between success rates with students of different cultural backgrounds.
Levels of Multicultural Counseling Multicultural counseling incorporates three distinct levels of competence. The initial, foundational level is that of awareness. Counselors can begin to build multicultural competence by first becoming aware of the effects of culture on worldview, behaviors, etc. It is also a good first step for counselors to be aware of their own preconceived notions about cultures, as well as aspects of their value system that are culturally based. Building on this, counselors can come to knowledge, respect, and understanding of other cultures, realizing that cultural assimilation is not always the recommended course of action for students. Cultural sensitivity includes refraining from imposing dominant beliefs and attitudes, unless appropriate. Balancing social protocol with cultural expression is a valuable skill that counselors can teach to students. Lastly, counselors can develop skills that enable them to implement effective and appropriate strategies when working with students from diverse cultures.
Types of Knowledge About Different Cultures That Will Enrich Multicultural Sensitivity Counselors working with diverse cultures can increase and enrich their sensitivity by understanding the concepts and terminology of a particular culture, as well as by learning developmental theories related to that culture. In order to understand a culture, a counselor needs a working knowledge of the history, traditions, strengths, needs, and resources of it. Counselors can act as consultants and liaisons by assisting students who are misunderstood and misrepresented by school staff, students, public media, etc. Understanding the semantics and terminology of specific cultures can be particularly helpful in mediating between cultural groups, as well as in encouraging communication and sensitivity between groups. Counselors who approach diversity with a fundamental knowledge of specific cultures and the impact of culture can provide role models for dynamic multicultural understanding and communication in the school environment. Understanding the impact of culture in particular can lay a strong foundation for multicultural sensitivity, as counselors, students, and school personnel begin to recognize the cultural basis of many misunderstandings.
Counseling Skills That Indicate Multicultural Sensitivity Counselors who are sensitive to cultural differences will more likely develop strategies and hypotheses that are free of cultural biases. Developing hypotheses that are not culturally slanted will allow counselors to more objectively plan and implement intervention strategies. Multicultural sensitivity enables counselors to design and deliver lesson plans that are free from stereotypical icons or remarks; it also helps them decide when and how to generalize instructions for diverse groups of students. With increased sensitivity, counselors can design activities and strategies that are inclusive of diverse cultures or that are individualized for different cultures. An example of an inclusive activity is eliciting student responses about a recent event on campus. An individualized activity could be asking students to write about holiday traditions in their home, which would allow students to respond from a cultural perspective.
Areas of the School System Positively Impacted By Multiculturally Competent Counselors Cultural and ethnic diversity in the school environment often results in disparities in peripheral areas, particularly if issues of oppression and bias are not addressed. Some of the peripheral areas that can be impacted by culturally-based hierarchies include academic achievement, literacy competence, AP course participation, career planning, and, most significantly, disparities in standardized test results, which can negatively affect college opportunities and eventual income level. Counselors who operate with multicultural sensitivity can significantly mitigate these disparities by acting as a liaison between the student body and school officials. In this capacity, counselors can act on students' behalf when there is a culturally-based misunderstanding, as well help students develop strategies for bridging cultural gaps. Counselors can also help school staff and officials pinpoint practices that may inherently pose a disadvantage for certain cultural groups.
Need for Multicultural and Anti-Oppression Training in Counseling Programs Traditional school counseling programs reflect long-practiced curricular parameters based on Western European culture and history. Consequently, practice and discussions tend to be non-inclusive of other cultures, particularly in regard to diversity and multicultural counseling issues. Counselors who have been trained in a traditional Western European program are usually inadequately prepared to address issues associated with multicultural identities, especially the practices and environments of oppression. Without infusing additional multicultural training into a counseling program, counselors often unknowingly perpetuate the Western paradigm. Counselors and the programs they create will then lack an understanding of oppression, cultural history, cultural identity, and the acquisition of multicultural competency. This is why the onus is usually on the counselor to obtain ongoing multicultural training, and to invest in research about multiculturalism and oppression, in order to bring a more comprehensive perspective into the school environment.
Social Justice Social justice incorporates awareness of inequalities based on cultural, race or ethnicity, and the ability to redistribute resources. Counselors who work with diverse student groups should know when and if those groups have been historically oppressed. This historical oppression usually reveals practices and attitudes that have been accepted and ingrained in the larger community as well as the school environment. Counselors can systematically and diplomatically address these practices and attitudes, in the interest of creating social environments that support social justice. Examples of these practices and attitudes include testing that does not allow for second language learners, and lesson plans that use examples that are only familiar to certain cultural groups. Counselors can work with students, school staff, and the surrounding community to establish an environment of social justice.
Helping Students Become Empowered The idea of empowerment includes the distribution of resources, but is rooted in a larger context of social relationships and dynamics. Culturally-based oppression often depends on acceptance from both the dominant culture and the oppressed culture. Historically oppressed cultures sometimes adopt ways of thinking and behaving that originally were enforced by violence or other extreme means, but have continued because of cultural identity. Likewise, historically dominant cultures adopt ways of thinking and behaving that perpetuate a false sense of superiority. Counselors can help students develop personal empowerment by encouraging them to recognize that individuals, and groups of individuals, often share many similarities and are connected at a fundamental level. This kind of thinking transcends historical relationships and forges new interpersonal connections, giving empowerment to previously disenfranchised groups.
Development of Consciousness and Self-Image Through Empowerment There are several key areas of personal dynamics and self-image that are impacted by empowerment:
Strategies for Helping Students Feel Empowered Counselors can help students feel empowered by pointing out their membership in the larger community and helping them to develop ownership and responsibility for their actions. Counselors can begin by discussing the parameters of group membership, noting that each of us belongs to several groups. Students must recognize that they belong to groups based on their occupation, community, culture, gender, etc. This recognition enables students to transcend limits of identity. Counselors can then point out that social dynamics involve the whole community, affecting individuals in myriad ways. This allows students to broaden their understanding of social processes. Students should also be encouraged to take personal responsibility for their academic progress, as well as for other actions and behaviors. Counselors can help students develop new behaviors that reflect a stronger self-confidence, a perception of membership in the larger community, and a realization that they can positively contribute to that community.
Skill-Building and Developing an Increased Knowledge Base While Promoting Empowerment Counselors working with students toward empowerment can first provide them with the knowledge and perspective that will allow them to approach their goals and circumstances differently. Even though students can understand their community membership in theory, often particular events or circumstances become a discouraging validation of the status quo. Counselors can partner with students to confront these circumstances, addressing them on a problem-specific basis, from an enlightened and empowered perspective. A good problem-solving strategy includes the following key steps:
Counselors can also provide support and encouragement, reminding students of their strengths, their desire to change their circumstances, and the support and resources available.
Need for Additional Multicultural Training in Individual Counseling
As with developing counseling programs, counselors who conduct individual counseling sessions can sometimes suffer from a dearth of multicultural knowledge, at least in part because of the limited scope of their training. This can affect counselors' interactions with students, as well as the strategies used to address problems. Many graduate programs fail to address cultures other than those with a Western European perspective. This can be a handicap for counselors working with a diverse student body, since they would lack an understanding of different cultural beliefs, terminology, historical oppression, and other factors. Understandably, their approach in counseling might be irrelevant or even offensive. Counselors working with a diverse student body should obtain multicultural training, develop relevant strategies for individual counseling, and collaborate with other counselors or school staff as appropriate.
Effects of Culture on Students' Perception and Participation in Counseling Process There are numerous cultural factors that can affect the counseling relationship. One of the primary factors is the difference between group-oriented cultures and individual-oriented cultures. Students who come from a culture that values the group above the individual will approach communication, goal-setting, and decision-making from a completely different perspective than those who comesfrom a culture that values the individual above the group (such as traditional Western culture). Culture can determine whether the student perceives the counselor as a helper or an intruder. Students from some cultural backgrounds may communicate more with body language than words, and could perceive the counselor's communication similarly. Culture can affect students' time orientation, sense of self, and ability to make decisions. This is particularly significant when counselors are working with students from a historically oppressed culture. Counselors can develop appropriate strategies for developing a student's sense of empowerment in harmony with his or her cultural values.
Composing Group Sessions with Multicultural Students The dynamics of group sessions can be particularly influenced by cultural factors. Understanding how different cultural groups respond to stereotypes, oppression, discrimination, and prejudice can assist the counselor in forming groups. Likewise, student perceptions of the counselor as facilitator or authority can affect the group dynamics. Although the recommendation is not necessarily to limit groups to similar cultures, and in fact in some cases it might be valuable to blend cultures, it is up to the counselor to be sensitive to the ramifications of multicultural dynamics. It is worth noting that culture can include gender, religion, and other criteria. Counselors should refer to literature, research, and other resources regarding considerations and practices related to cultural diversity.
Facilitating Multicultural Understanding in Group Sessions Although multicultural groups can benefit from the richness of blended cultures, these groups may be more susceptible to misunderstandings and conflicts as a result of the differences in perspectives. The counselor can provide valuable leadership by encouraging the interchange of ideas about such topics as self-identity, self-worth, oppression, and responsibility to society. Likewise, if there is conflict in the group, the counselor who has been trained in multicultural sensitivity can better recognize if the conflict is culturally based, and can take the opportunity to intervene and work with the students to develop strategies for resolution. It may be possible for the group to work as a whole on culturally-based conflict resolution, allowing other members to contribute newly learned skills or perspectives. Multicultural counseling groups can provide fertile ground for teaching multicultural sensitivity.
Importance of Multicultural Sensitivity When Consulting with Parents and Teachers Sensitivity to cultural differences can be especially important when consulting with parents and teachers on a student matter, particularly when the student's family is from a different culture than the teacher or counselor. Often, the consulting/discussion group will be comprised of the student, his or her parents, the counselor, the teacher, and a school counselor. Counselors need to be especially sensitive to the following key factors:
Counselors should create an environment that allows comfortable communication and input from all parties. Counselors should be sensitive to the cultural significance and perception of the issue at hand, as well as to the best ways to address the problem within the cultural contexts
Addressing Cultural Biases or Stereotypes in Consulting Arrangements In the process of facilitating a discussion among parents, student, teachers, and other parties in a consulting discussion, counselors may find that one or more individuals may be communicating or acting from a paradigm of bias or stereotyping. This may develop into a resistance to resolution, particularly if the problem is culturally based. Counselors may need to challenge the individuals by pointing out the specific words or behaviors that perpetuate stereotypes and the negative effect that these actions have on the intervention process. Counselors can remind the group of the shared desire for resolution, and how stereotyping can detract from the purpose of the gathering. They can remind participants that the well-being of the student will be best served by collaboration and by refraining from expressions of cultural bias and stereotyping.
Assessing Students from Diverse Cultural Backgrounds In most school environments, there are a number of standardized tests that are administered to assess academic achievement and aptitude. Counselors can provide a valuable service to the school and its students by determining if tests are inherently culturally biased, and by suggesting alternate assessment methods as appropriate. Some of the aspects of testing that should be reviewed are references to events or individuals that are specific to particular cultures and language-based assessment that does not allow for second language learners. It may be appropriate for the counselor to help school counselors develop alternative testing methods, or to work one-on-one with students from disadvantaged cultures. Counselors should obtain training and use outside resources to identify culturally biased testing and to choose alternative methods. It is also important to understand how to communicate testing results to families of students from diverse cultures.
Avoiding Cultural Bias When Conducting Assessment Counselors should be particularly vigilant about any personal biases that could obscure the assessment process. In other words, if a test is designed to assess student readiness for academic promotion, and half of the students perform at the readiness level, while the other half perform below the readiness level, the initial reaction might be that the test was successful, and that half of the class is ready for promotion. However, if a counselor finds that lines of success or failure fall in a quasi-line progression toward eliminating or isolating a particular cultural group, he or she should avoid the assumption that the test validates cultural differences, and instead should review the test and the testing process for cultural biases. Not only can these cultural biases negatively affect individual students, but the continued use of a culturally skewed test can be used to fallaciously document poor achievement by particular cultures, and further perpetuate academic oppression.
Making Tests Available in Languages Other Than the Dominant Language Assessment vehicles that are language based, such as math word problems or reading comprehension tests, may intrinsically put second-language learners at a disadvantage. Counselors should be sensitive to this disadvantage, and should offer students alternate testing methods. These methods may include written tests in the student's native language or the presence of an interpreter. Translators may also be on hand to present the questions in both the dominant language and the student's native language, in order to assist the student in making associations between the two. It is important that the test be presented in a way that is comfortable, allows ample time for translation, and does not contain any implications of inferiority about second-language learners. Assessment of second-language learners should fairly and accurately test students' aptitudes, skills, and abilities.
Using Curriculum Lessons to Address Multicultural Sensitivity Often, counselors are required to deliver lesson plans regarding multicultural awareness and sensitivity to diverse groups of students. Counselors can improve the cultural climate in a school setting by promoting multicultural sensitivity and educating students about best practices for positive diversity. They can begin by defining and identifying cultural differences, as well as appropriate language and behaviors for addressing these differences. A lesson plan about multicultural sensitivity can first identify that culture may include or refer to race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, different levels of ability, etc. Counselors can illustrate how culturally-biased behaviors and attitudes can lead to oppression and conflict, whereas avoidance of these behaviors can contribute to the richness of a diverse student body. Counselors should also remind students of the negativity engendered by practicing and promoting oppressive behaviors among their families and other members of their own culture.
Lesson Plan Topics on Positive Diversity and Multicultural Sensitivity Counselors wishing to educate students on positive diversity and multicultural sensitivity can include both informational and reflective elements in their lesson plans. Informational elements can encompass the correct usage of multicultural terminology, identification of oppression and oppressive practices, and identification of cultural differences and how they can affect interaction. Counselors can explain culturally-based differences of world view and value systems. Reflective exercises can include group discussions, testimonies of personal experience, or journal exercises exploring personal biases and assumptions. Counselors can also include examples of racism, ageism, ableism, etc., to identify cultural bias and illustrate its negative impact. Students could be asked to identify cultural bias in historical texts. The class can also discuss ideas for addressing oppressive beliefs and practices throughout the world. Lesson plans can alternate between informational lecture and reflective discussion to best engage the students in the topic.
Including the Surrounding Community in Building Multicultural Sensitivity Counselors can offer their expertise and act as liaisons to the surrounding community by including parents and neighbors in discussions and events promoting multicultural sensitivity. It is usually the responsibility of the counselor to coordinate this community outreach, which can take many forms. Counselors can develop peer mediation services, family counseling services, or hold workshops in the community to discuss cultural diversity. One of the common goals of a community outreach program is to increase multicultural sensitivity and communication, not only within the community, but also in the area surrounding the school campus. Since school campuses are often diverse, and the neighborhoods often culturally isolated, school counselors can be the vehicle for transcending cultural differences and encouraging multicultural understanding. Another method for involving the surrounding community is to hold programs, such as talent shows, on campus and invite the parents and neighbors.
Developing Relationships with the Surrounding Multicultural Community Because students are in many ways required to assimilate the dominant culture, counselors may be only vaguely aware of the unique expectations, belief systems, and practices of a student's native culture. B. developing and maintaining relationships with members of the surrounding community, counselors can be exposed to cultural practices and assumptions that are more pronounced because neighborhoods tend to be culturally isolated. In this way, counselors may gain insight about cultural identity from adults in the neighborhood. Students may be less likely to reveal some information, partly because of inherent role dynamics between the adult counselor and the adolescent student. Counselors can also find out about cultural holidays, traditions, and events in the neighborhood.
Significance of Data Collection and Sharing Counselors can make a significant contribution to both the efficacy and the equity of a school's curriculum by collecting and sharing data related to the academic performance of the student body. This data can be invaluable in identifying chronic achievement inequities among racial, ethnic, and/or socioeconomic groups. Counselors should work with school staff and counselors to identify these inequities and to implement strategies to rectify the disparities. This may result in changes to course offerings or changes to the counseling program itself. Data collection may also identify strategies or courses of study that are successful. Since decisions related to curriculum are often made by committee, including school boards, clear and accurate presentation of the information is vital. Therefore, interpretation of the data is particularly important and should be conducted in collaboration with school counselors and staff.
Areas for Student Data Collection The first area to focus on when collecting data is that of academic achievement. Sources include standardized test scores, grade point averages, other academic-based scores or results, and retention and graduation rates. Secondly, academic participation can be quantitatively assessed by looking at data related to course enrollment, discipline referrals, suspension rates, incidents involving illegal substances, parent participation, homework completion, and extracurricular participation. It should be noted that retention/drop-out rates can form part of both the achievement and the participation data bases. The third major area of focus for student data collection is the set of graduation-readiness competencies. These competencies include the number of students with four-year plans on file and the number of students who have participated in workshops related to career-planning, job-shadowing, and conflict resolution. Students who have completed their academic goals also form part of the graduation-readiness competency data.
Collecting Data on Multicultural Students It is important to have appropriate variables when using data collection to determine inequities based on race, culture, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. While there may be significant conclusions to be drawn by comparing results divided by gender, race, socioeconomic status, second-language learners, and other major categories, more useful information may be gained by comparing results in different areas within cultural groups. For instance, the results of second-language learners who perform well on aptitude tests that are number based, but poorly on those that are language based, should be assessed to determine if the testing and/or the curriculum inherently results in a cultural inequity. This kind of data gathering can identify which programs, courses, and strategies are most and least effective for diverse students, and adjustments can be made accordingly. In addition, if students do well on standardized tests, and poorly in the classroom assignments and tests, this may be an indication of poor participation in the classroom.
Importance of Personal Research and Reflection in Multicultural Counseling For counselors to be competent in multicultural counseling, it is important for them to develop a sensitivity to the significance of the distinguishing characteristics of culture. A good foundation for this sensitivity is self-investigation and self-reflection on the counselor's own cultural background. Counselors can develop an understanding of how their cultural and ethnic background has contributed to their value system, their traditions and rituals, their view of the individual's place in the larger society, and many other personal traits. Likewise, cultural history can reveal how particular cultures or cultural traits have played a part in social hierarchy. Counselors who are aware of their own ties to culture will be better able to understand the significance of culture for students who come from a different cultural background. A counselor with this valuable foundation can be an important liaison for students who need to balance tradition with assimilation.
Ongoing Workshops and Seminars for Maintaining Multicultural Competence The issues of diversity in the counseling and school environment are complex and multidimensional. As a society, our collective knowledge of diverse cultures and multiculturalism is continually evolving. Therefore, it is advisable for counselors to periodically attend workshops and seminars on the subject. Each workshop or seminar will help to expand a counselor's sensitivity to diverse cultures. From these events, counselors will learn how to work better with students and their families in the school counseling environment. They will learn strategies and terminology that reflect sensitivity and understanding of the scope of culture in general, as well as of the specifics of particular cultures. Fortunately, many professional organizations are aware of the need for ongoing training in multiculturalism and will usually offer numerous opportunities for the school counselor.
Value of Organizations That Work on Multicultural Competence The knowledge base formed from attending workshops and seminars can be greatly added to by meeting with other counselors on a regular basis or by joining organizations dedicated to increasing cultural sensitivity. The knowledge gained during periodic attendance at workshops can sometimes dissipate in an environment where it is not necessarily reinforced. Meeting with peers can repeat and validate this knowledge and can also provide the opportunity to implement and revise strategies. The combined expertise of the group can allow for shared ideas and strategies toward multicultural competency. Also, as a group, an organization of peers can collaborate on methods and strategies for combating oppression in the school and surrounding community through school counseling curricula and programs. These professional organizations include Counselors for Social Justice and the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development.
Reading Literature About Multiculturalism to Increase Knowledge and The ability to read, analyze, and critically explore issues of cultural diversity through a written medium offers benefits not necessarily present in a seminar, workshop, or organizational meeting. Literature about cultural diversity can explore historical and current events through the eyes and perspectives of several cultural groups, especially when the written text is the culmination of research and interviews. Reading these texts, counselors can gain a comprehensive understanding of the historical factors and impact of events in relation to race, socioeconomic class, culture, gender, and the histories of other groups who have been oppressed or victimized because of culture. A good book dealing with these issues is Howard Zinn's A People's History of the United States, which contains personal testimonies and anecdotes about the subject. These personal stories allow for a first-person perspective on issues of social justice, giving the counselor a sense of empathy to bring to the multicultural counseling environment.
Benefits of Continued Reading of Literature on Multiculturalism The benefits of reading literature that addresses issues of multiculturalism are generally two-fold: for one thing, literature on the subject of multiculturalism is always evolving, reflecting current research and other input. As with organizational meetings, literature dealing with cultural diversity is a compilation of the experiences and expertise of a number of people from a variety of perspectives. Counselors should become cognizant of this evolving expertise, in multiculturalism as well as other aspects of counseling. Secondly, teaching or counseling in isolation from the continued input of others increases the risk of personal biases and perspectives coloring the curriculum. Any one individual inherently has a limited worldview, and no individual or group of individuals could possibly know all there is to know about other cultures. Consequently, continued exposure to viewpoints and perspectives beyond their own horizon allows counselors to respond appropriately to a diverse student body.
Importance of a Checklist in Determining Own Multicultural Competence A checklist can provide a rubric for counselors to assess their own level of multicultural awareness, sensitivity, and competence. For counselors commencing their own edification in multicultural sensitivity, or those who are relatively new and beginning the process of multicultural training, checklists can provide a set of goals to attain in the process of becoming more aware of multicultural issues. Counselors can see which issues or concerns are in need of further work, and can take advantage of the available resources for development in these areas. Once these goals are attained, counselors can periodically review the checklist to ascertain that they are continuing to incorporate the guidelines and strategies represented by the checklist, and can again refer to outside resources if indicated. The Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development, as well as other agencies, publishes appropriate checklists that address such issues as behavior, knowledge, sensitivity, and awareness.
IDEIA The Individuals with Disabilities Education and Improvement Act (IDEIA) was enacted to ensure that eligible school-aged students receive the opportunity for a reasonable education. Eligible students are defined as those students who exhibit any single or combination of 13 identified disabilities. Reasonable education is distinguished as allowing students to make reasonable educational progress, not necessarily to achieve their highest possible performance. Eligible students can receive a free appropriate public education (FAPE) under IDEIA. The Act stipulates that these eligible students receive an education that is designed around their intellectual and physical levels. It is also mandated that the delivery of the curriculum be specially designed to meet the particular requirements of students. If the disability presented by the child has a minimal or non-negative effect on learning, then the student may not be eligible for IDEIA resources, but may be eligible for reasonable accommodations under Section 504.
Autism, Deaf-Blindness, Deafness, and Hearing Impairment Per IDEIA Criteria Autism is a disability that affects social interactions as well as verbal and non-verbal communications. It can manifest in repetitive activities, stereotyped movements, resistance to changes in routine or environment, and unusual responses to stimuli. Most autism is evident in children before the age of 3. Academic performance may be mildly or severely impacted by autism, depending on the range and intensity of the symptoms. Deaf-blindness refers to significant impairment in both hearing and vision. The combined impairments can result in severe suppression of development, learning, and communication, well beyond that which would result from deafness or blindness alone. Deafness refers to a hearing impairment that is sufficient to affect the processing of linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification. Academic participation and performance are affected accordingly. Hearing impairment refers to a permanent or fluctuating condition that adversely affects the educational performance but does not qualify as deafness.
Developmental Delay, Emotional Disturbance, and Intellectual Disabilities Per IDEIA Criteria Developmental delay refers to a significant cognitive lapse between ages 3 and 9 that cannot be accounted for by any other identified disability. Emotional disturbance refers to a spectrum of symptoms that encompass a general inability to cope or learn which presents over a long period of time and to a marked degree. Symptoms include an unexplainable inability to learn, inappropriate behaviors or feelings under normal circumstances, a tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears that correlate with personal or academic problems, the inability to foster satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers or teachers, and a general mood of unhappiness or depression. This condition adversely affects educational performance accordingly. IDEIA includes schizophrenia in this category. 'Intellectual disabilities' refers to a significantly sub-average intellectual functioning that may exist alongside deficits in adaptive behavior and may manifest during the developmental period.
Implementing Special Education Appropriation for Students Generally, the steps involved in appropriating special education accommodations for a student include:
Counselor will implement an FAPE in the least restrictive environment (LRE), as determined by the parents/guardians and educators.
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