General Knowledge & General Awareness Notes: Ancient Indian History

ANCIENT INDIA

INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION (2500-1750 BC)
- The earliest excavations in the Indus valley were done at Harappa in the West Punjab and Mohenjodaro in Sindh.
Both places are now in Pakistan.

Important Sites
- The most important sites are Kot Diji in Sindh, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Ropar in the Punjab, Banawali in Haryana, Lothal, Surkotada and Dhaulavira, all the three in Gujarat.
- Mohenjodaro is the largest of all the Indus cities and it is estimated to have spread over an area of 200 hectares.

Major Sites Excavators Year River Location Important Findings
1. Harappa D.R. Sahni 1921 Ravi West Punjab Granaries, Virgin Goddess, (Pakistan) Cemetery, Stone symbol of Lingam and Yoni
2. Mohenjodaro R.D. Banerjee 1922 Indus Sindh Great Bath, Great Granary, Assem (Pakistan) bly Hall, Proto-Shiva, Brick Kilns, Mesopotamian seals
3. Chanhudaro N.G. Mazumdar 1931 Indus Sindh Bronze toy cart, Ink-pot, Lipstick, City (Pakistan) without a citadel
4. Kalibangan B.B. Lal & 1953 Ghaggar Ganganagar Decorated bricks, ploughed field - B.K. Thapar (Rajasthan) surface, Firealtars
5. Lothal S.R. Rao 1957 Bhogwa Ahmedabad Dockyard, Rice husk, Fire altars, (Gujarat) Double burial
6. Banawali R.S. Bist 1973 Ghaggar Hissar Toy plough, Gridiron pattern of (Haryana) Town planning.
7. Dholavira R.S. Bist 1990 Luni Kutchh A Large well & a bath, (Gujarat) A stadium
8. Surkotada J. Joshi 1964 — Gujarat Bones of Horse, Pot burials

Salient Features of the Harappan Culture
- The Harappan Civilization was primarily Urban.
- Mohenjodaro and Harappa were the planned cities.
- The large-scale use of burnt bricks in almost all kinds of constructions are the important characteristics of the Harappan culture.
- Another remarkable feature was the underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains which were covered by stone slabs or bricks.
- The most important public place of Mohenjodaro is the Great Bath measuring 39 feet length, 23 feet breadth and 8 feet depth.
- Agriculture was the most important occupation. In the fertile soils, farmers cultivated two crops a year. They were the first who had grown paddy.
- Wheat and barley were the main crops grown besides sesame, mustard and cotton.
- Animals like sheep, goats and buffalo were domesticated. The use of horse is not yet firmly established.
- Bronze and copper vessels are the outstanding examples of the Harappan metal craft.
- A large number of seals numbering more than 2000 have been discovered.

Indus Valley Civilisation : An Objective Study

Social Life
- Jewelleries such as bangles, bracelets, fillets, girdles, anklets, ear-rings and finger rings were worn by women. These ornaments were made of gold, silver, copper, bronze and semi precious stones.
- Fishing was a regular occupation while hunting and bull fighting were other pastimes.
- Manufacture of terracotta (burnt clay) was a major industry of the people.
- Figures of animals such as sacred bull and dove were discovered. The figures of Mother Goddesses were used for religious purposes.
- Most of the inscriptions were engraved on seals. It is interesting to note that the Indus script has not yet been deciphered.
- The Pipal tree was used as a religious symbol.
- The origin of the 'Swastika' symbol can be traced to the Harrapan Civilization.
- The chief male deity was Pasupati, (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture with three faces and two horns.

THE VEDIC PERIOD

RIG VEDIC AGE (1500 - 1000 B.C.)
- The Early Vedic period is known from the Rig Veda.
- The Rig Veda refers to Saptasindhu or the land of seven rivers. This includes the five rivers of the Punjab, namely, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej along with the Indus and Saraswati.
- Historians view that the Aryans came from Central Asia.
They entered India through the Khyber pass between 2000 B.C. and 1500 B.C. They first settled in seven places in the Punjab region which they called Sapta Sindhu. Slowly, they moved towards the Gangetic Valley.
- The Aryan Civilisation was a rural civilisation.

Vedic Literature
- The word 'Veda' is derived from the root 'vid', which means to know and signifies 'superior knowledge'.
- The Vedic literature consists of the four Vedas – Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.
- The Rig Veda is the earliest of the four Vedas divided into 10 mandalas and it consists of 1028 hymns. The hymns were sung by Hotri in praise of various gods.
- The Yajur Veda consists of various details of rules to be observed at the time of sacrifice. Its hymns were recited by Adharvayus.
- The Sama Veda is set to tune for the purpose of chanting during sacrifice. It is called the book of chants and the origins of Indian music are traced in it. Its hymns were recited by Udgatri.
- The Atharva Veda contains details of rituals.
- Besides the Vedas, there are other sacred works like the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, the Upanishads, and the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.

Political Organisation
- During this period, the kingdom was tribal in character. Each tribe formed a separate kingdom.
- The basic unit of political organisation was kula or family.
- The highest political unit was called jana or tribe.
- There were several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus. The head of the kingdom was called as rajan or king.
- There were two popular bodies called the Sabha and Samiti. The former seems to have been a council of elders and the latter, a general assembly of the entire people.

Social Life
- Family was the basis of the society.
- The head of the family was known as grihapathi.

Economic Condition
- The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral people and their main occupation was cattle rearing. Their wealth was estimated in terms of their cattle.
- Carpentry was another important profession.

RELIGION
- The important Rig Vedic gods were Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain) and Indra (Thunder).
- Indra was the most popular among them during the early Vedic period.
- There were also female gods like Aditi and Ushas. There were no temples and no idol worship during the early Vedic period.

Rigvedic Rivers:
River - Name in Rigveda

Indus Sindhu
Jhelum Vitasta
Chenab Asikni
Ravi Parushini
Beas Vipasa
Sutlej Sutudri
Gomati Gomal
Saraswati Sarasvati
Ghaggar Prishadavati

LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000–600 B.C.)
- This age is also called as the Epic Age because the two great epics the Ramayana and Mahabharata were written during this period.

- The Sama, Yajur, Atharva Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads and the two epics are the sources of information for this period.

Political Organisation
- Larger kingdoms were formed during the later Vedic period.
- The king performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position . Th ey inclu de Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race).
- Kingship became hereditary.
- Kings assumed titles like Ekrat, Samrat and Sarvabhauma.\

Economic Condition
- Iron was used extensively in this period and this enabled the people to clear forests and to bring more land under cultivation. Agriculture became the chief occupation.
- Taxes like Bali, Sulk and Bhaga were collected from the people.
- Wealth was calculated in terms of cows.

Social Life
- The four divisions of society (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras) or the Varna system was thoroughly established during the Later Vedic period.
- The Ashrama system was formed to attain 4 purusharthas. They were Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. 

Religion
- Gods of the Early Vedic period like Indra and Agni lost their importance. Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and Rudra (the destroyer) became prominent during the Later Vedic period.

JAINISM AND BUDDHISM

JAINISM
- Jainism originated in the 6th century B.C. It rejected Vedic religion and avoided its rituals.
- Founded by Rishabha Deva. Rishabha Deva was succeeded by 23 Thirthankaras (prophets). Mahavira was the 24th Thirthankara.

Vardhamana Mahavira (540-468 B.C.)
- Vardhamana was born in a village called Kundagrama near Vaishali in Bihar.
- His father was Siddhartha. He was the head of a famous Kshatriya clan.
- His mother was Trisala. She was a princess of the Lichchhavi clan. She was the sister of the ruler of Vaishali.
- Vardhamana was married to Yasoda, a princess. They had a daughter.
- At the age of 30, he left his home and family. He became an ascetic (monk). He wandered from place-to-place in search of truth for 12 years.
- In the 13th year of his penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevalya or Jnana. Thereafter, he was called Mahavira and Jina. His followers were called Jains and his religion Jainism.
- He died at the age of 72 in 468 B.C. at a place called Pavapuri near modern Rajgir in Bihar.

Teachings of Jainism
- The three principles of Jainism, also known as Triratnas (three gems), are:

1. right faith.
2. right knowledge.
3. right conduct.
- Mahavira preached his disciples to follow the five principles. They are:
1. Ahimsa—not to injure any living beings
2. Satya—to speak the truth
3. Asteya—not to steal
4. Tyag—not to own property
5. Brahmacharia—to lead a virtuous life.

Spread of Jainism
- Mahavira preached his religion in Prakrit language which was the language of the masses.
- Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela of Kalinga and the royal dynasties of south India such as the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas patronised Jainism.
- Jainism was divided into two sects after Vallabhi Council, namely Svetambaras (wearing white dresses) under Sthulbhadra and Digambaras (naked) under Bhadrabahu.
- The first Jain Council was convened at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu, the leader of the Digambaras, in the beginning of the 3rd century B.C.
- The second Jain Council was held at Vallabhi in 5th century A.D. The final compilation of Jain literature called Twelve Angas was completed in this council.

BUDDHISM
Gautama Buddha (563-483 B.C.)
- Buddha's original name was Siddhartha.
- Siddhartha was born in the Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu in Nepal. His father was Suddhodana. He was a Sakya chief of Kapilavastu. His mother, Mayadevi, died when Siddhartha was only seven days old. He was brought up by his step mother Mahaprajapati Gauthami.
- At the age of sixteen Siddhartha, married Yasodhara and gave birth to a son, Rahul.
- The sight of an old man, a diseased man, a corpse and an ascetic turned him away from worldly life. He left home at the age of twenty-nine in search of Truth.
- He wandered for seven years and at last, he sat under a bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar and did intense penance, after which he got Enlightenment (Nirvana) at the age of

Main Buddhist Councils
Buddhist Council - Time  - Place  - Chairman - Patron

First 483 BC Rajagriha Mahakashyapa Ajatasatru
Second 383 BC Vaishali Sabakamuni Kalashoka
Third 250 BC Patliputra Moggaliputta Tissa Ashoka
Fourth AD 72 Kundalvana Vasumitra, Ashwaghosa Kanishka thirty-five. Since then, he became known as the Buddha or 'the Enlightened One'.

- Buddha delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Banaras (now Varanasi).
- He died at the age of 80 in 483 B.C. at Kushinagar in Uttar Pradesh.

Teachings of Buddha
- The Four Noble Truths of Buddha are:
1. The world is full of suffering.
2. The cause of suffering is desire.
3. If desires are get rid off, suffering can be removed.
4. This can be done by following the Eightfold Path.
- The Eightfold Path consists of:
1. Right Thought.
2. Right Belief.
3. Right Speech.
4. Right Action.
5. Right Living.
6. Right Efforts.
7. Right Knowledge.
8. Right Meditation.

Buddhist Literature
- In Pali language.
- Buddhist scriptures in Pali are commonly referred to as Tripitakas, i.e., 'Three Baskets'.
- Vinaya Pitaka: Rules of discip lin e in Bu ddhist monasteries.
- Sutta Pitaka: Largest, contains collection of Buddha's sermons.
- Abidhamma Pitaka: Explanation of the philosophical principles of the Buddhist religion.

The Mahajanapadas
Mahajanapadas - Capital
1. Kashi Varanasi
2. Kosala Shravasti
3. Anga Champanagri
4. Magadh Girivraj or Rajgriha
5. Vajji Vaishali
6. Malla Kushinagar and Pavapuri
7. Chedi Shuktimati
8. Vatsa Kaushambi
9. Kuru Hastinapur, Indraprastha and Isukara
10. Panchal Ahichhatra and Kampilya
11. Matsya Viratnagar
12. Surasen Mathura
13. Asmaka Paudanya
14. Avanti Ujjaini
15. Gandhara Taxila
16. Kamboj Rajpur (Hatak)

DYNASTIES OF ANCIENT INDIA

HARYANKA DYNASTY
- Bimbisara was the founder of Haryanka Dynasty.
- He was a contemporary of both Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama Buddha.
- During his rule, Darius I, the Achaemenian emperor, conquered the Indus Valley area.
- Ajatasatru imprisoned his father Bimbisara.
- The first Buddhist Council was convened by Ajatasatru at Rajgir.
- The immediate successor of Ajatasatru was Udayin.
- Udayin laid the foundation of the new capital at Pataliputra situated at the confluence of the two rivers, the Ganges and the Sone.
- Shishunaga was the founder of Shishunaga dynasty.
- After Shishunaga, the mighty empire began to collapse.  His successor was Kakavarman or Kalasoka. During his reign, the second Buddhist Council was held at Vaishali.
- Kalasoka was killed by the founder of the Nanda dynasty.

NANDAS
- The fame of Magadha scaled new heights under the Nanda dynasty.
- Mahapadmananda was the founder of Nanda rule in Magadha.
- The last Nanda ruler was Dhana Nanda. Alexander invaded India during his rule.

MAURYAN EMPIRE

CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (322–298 B.C.)
- Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan Empire. He overthrew Nanda dynasty with the help of Chanakya.
- Chandragupta defeated Seleukos Nikator, the Greek general of Alexander, in a battle in 305 B.C.
- Seleukos sent Megasthenes as Greek Ambassador to the Court of Chandragupta. Megasthenes wrote Indica.
- Chandragupta was a follower of Jainism.
- He came to Sravana Belgola, near Mysore with a Jain monk called Bhadrabahu. The hill in which he lived until his death is called Chandragiri.
- Chanakya served as prime minister during the reigns of Chandragupta and Bindusara.

BINDUSARA (298–273 B.C.)
- Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by his son Bindusara.
- Bindusara was called by the Greeks as 'Amitraghatha' meaning, slayer of enemies.

ASHOKA (273–232 B.C.)
- Ashoka was the most famous ruler of the Mauryan dynasty.
- The most important event of Ashoka's reign was his victorious war with Kalinga in 261 B.C.
- Ashoka convened the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra around 250 B.C. in order to strengthen the Sangha. It was presided over by Moggaliputta Tissa.
- Ashoka's edicts and inscriptions were deciphered by James Prinsep in 1837.
- The last Mauryan king, Brahadratha was killed by his minister Pushyamitra Sunga. It put an end to the Mauryan Empire.

SUNGAS
- The founder of the Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga, who was the commander-in-chief under the Mauryas.
- He ascended the throne of Magadha in 185 B.C.
- Pushyamitra was a staunch follower of Brahmanism. He performed two asvamedha sacrifices.
- After the death of Pushyamitra, his son Agnimitra became the ruler.
- Agnimitra was a great conqueror. He was also the hero of the play Malavikagnimitram written by Kalidasa.

KANVA
- The last Sunga ruler was Devabhuti, who was murdered by his minister Vasudeva Kanva, the founder of the Kanva dynasty.
- The Kanva dynasty ruled for 45 years. After the fall of the Kanvas, the history of Magadha was a blank until the establishment of the Gupta dynasty.

SATAVAHANAS
- The founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka.
- The greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni.
- The greatest port of the Satavahanas was Kalyani on the west Deccan. Gandakasela and Ganjam on the east coast were the other important seaports.
- The fine painting at Amaravathi and Nagarjunakonda caves belong to this period.

SANGAM AGE (300 B.C. TO A.D. 300)
- The Sangam Age constitutes an important chapter in the history of South India.
- According to Tamil legends, there existed three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) in ancient Tamil Nadu popularly called Muchchangam. These Sangams flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandyas.
- The first Sangam, held at then Madurai, chaired by Agastya.
- The second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram, chaired by Tolkappiyar.
- The third Sang am at Madurai w as founded by Mudathirumaran.

Political History
- The Tamil country was ruled by three dynasties namely the Chera, Chola and Pandyas during the Sangam Age.

CHERAS
- The Cheras ruled over parts of modern Kerala. Their capital was Vanji and their important seaports were Tondi and Musiris.
- The greatest Chera King was Senguttuvan.

CHOLAS
- The Chola kingdom of the Sangam period extended from modern Tiruchi district to southern Andhra Pradesh.
- Their capital was first located at Uraiyur and then shifted to Puhar. Kaveripattinam served as their port.

GUPTA PERIOD
- The Gupta period is considered as the Golden Age in the history of India because this period witnessed all round developments in Religion, Literature, Science, Art and Architecture.

CHANDRAGUPTA I (320-334 A.D.)
- In the beginning of the 4th Century A.D., Sri Gupta established a small Kingdom at Pataliputra. He is considered as the founder of the Gupta dynasty.
- The first notable ruler of the Gupta dynasty was Chandragupta I. He assumed the title Maharajadhiraja.
The Meherauli Iron Pillar inscription mentions his extensive conquests.
- Chandragupta I is considered to be the founder of the Gupta era which starts with his accession in A.D. 320.

SAMUDRAGUPTA (335-380 A.D.)
- Samudragupta was the greatest of the rulers of the Gupta dynasty. The Allahabad Pillar inscription provides a detailed account of his reign.
- Because of his military achievements, Samudragupta was hailed as 'Indian Napoleon'.

CHANDRAGUPTA II (380-414 A.D.)
- Samudragupta was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II Vikramaditya.
- The greatest of the military achievements of Chandragupta.
It was his war against the Saka satraps of western India.
- The famous Chinese pilgrim, Fahien visited India (A.D. 399 - A.D. 414) during the reign of Chandragupta II.

SUCCESSORS OF CHANDRAGUPTA II
- Kumaragupta (415-455) was the son and successor of Chandragupta II. His reign was marked by general peace and prosperity.
- Kumaragupta was the founder of the Nalanda University.
- Kumaragupta was followed by Skandagupta who ruled from A.D. 456 to A.D. 468.
- After Skandagupta's death, many of his successors like Purugupta, Narasimhagupta, Buddhagupta and Baladitya could not save the Gupta empire from the Huns. Ultimately, the Gupta power totally disappeared due to the Hun invasions and later by the rise of Yasodharman in Malwa.

PUSHYABHUTI DYNASTY (600 - 647 A.D.)
- The greatest king was Harshavardhana, son of Prabhakar Vardhana of Thaneshwar. He shifted the capital to Kannauj.
- Hieun Tsang visited during his reign.
- He established a large monastery at Nalanda. Banabhata adorned his court, wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari. Harsha himself wrote three plays–Priyadarshika, Ratnawali and Nagananda.

PALLAVAS
- The Pallavas established th eir king dom in Tondaimandalam by Simhavishnu with its capital at Kanchipuram.
- Other great Pallava rulers were Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I, and Narasimhavarman II.
- The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram is the greatest architectural masterpiece of the Pallava art.

CHALUKYAS (543-755 A.D.)
- Pulakesin I was the founder of the Chalukya dynasty. He established a small kingdom with Vatapi or Badami as its capital.
- The structural temples of the Chalukyas exist at Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal (Virupaksha temple). Cave temple architecture was also famous under the Chalukyas. Their cave temples are found in Ajanta, Ellora and Nasik.

RASHTRAKUTAS (755-975 A.D.)
- The art and architecture of the Rashtrakutas were found at Ellora and Elephanta.

CHOLAS
- Cholas became prominent in the ninth century and established an empire comprising the major portion of South India. Their capital was Tanjore.
- The founder of the Chola kingdom was Vijayalaya.
- Rajaraja Chola built the famous Brihadeeswara temple at Tanjore.
- Dancing Figure of Shiva (Nataraja) belong to Chola period.