GK Notes: Art and Culture

Religion

Religion is a collection of belief systems, cultural systems and world views that relate humanity to spirituality and sometimes tomoral values. Religion is different from private belief in its social character.

Hinduism

▸ It consists of a collection of intellectual and philosophical points of views, rather than a rigid system of beliefs.
▸ There is no specific founder of the religion.
▸ Its roots can be traced to the historical Vedic religion of the Iron age India.
▸ Hinduism is the third largest religion in the world after Christianity and Islam.
▸ Prominent texts are Vedas, the Ramayana and Mahabharata.

▸ Prophet Mohammed is the founder of Islam.
▸ Quran is the Holy book of Islam.
▸ Islam is the second largest religion in the world.
▸ Most Muslims belong to two denominations- Shia and Sunni.
▸ Islam arrived in India in the AD 8th century.

▸ Jesus is the founder of Christianity.
▸ Bible is the Holy book of Christianity.
▸ Christian religion is mainly divided into 2 streams- Catholic and Protestant.
▸ Christianity is the world's largest religion.
▸ Holy texts of the Christianity are the Old Testament and the New Testament.

Sikhism

▸ Guru Nanak is the founder of Sikhism.
▸ Guru Granth Sahib is the Holy book of Sikhism. Sikhism is the third largest religion of India.
▸ Sikhism developed in India during 16th and 17th centuries.

Buddhism

▸ Mahatma Buddha is the founder of Buddhism.Buddhism is the indigenous religion of India.
▸ Holy book of Buddhism are the Tripitak as.
▸ The three Jewels of Buddhism are Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.
▸ Buddhists generally classify themselves as either Theravada or Mahayana.

Jainism

▸ Mahavira Swami is the founder of Jainism.
▸ Jainism is a religion indigenous to the Indian subcontinent.
▸ Holy book of Jainism is the Kalpa Sutras.
▸ The main doctrines of Jainism are Anekantavada, Syadvada and Nayavada. The two sects of Jainism are Svetambara and Digambara. Jaina holy texts consist of Purvas, Agamas, Angas and Upangas.

Languages

Sanskrit

▸ Sanskrit is the mother of many Indian languages.
▸ Sanskrit is the most ancient language of our country.
▸ The Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and Dharmasutras are all written in Sanskrit.
▸ It is one of the twenty-two languages listed in the Indian Constitution.
▸ The Dharmasutras, the Manusmriti, Arthashastra and Gita Govinda are the famous books in Sanskrit.
▸ Panini, Kautilya, Kalhana and Jayadeva are the famous writers of Sanskrit.

Pali

Pali is an Indo-Aryan language, which was used for the earliest Buddhist scriptures. Pali literature is mainly concerned with Theravada Buddhism.

Telugu

▸ The Vijyanagara period was the golden age of Telugu literature.
▸ Eight Telugu literary luminaries are popularly known as Ashtadiggajas.
▸ Ramakrishna was the author of Panduranga Mahatmayam, which was considered as one of the greatest poetical works of Telugu literature.

Kannada

▸ Kannada language developed fully after the AD 10th century. The earliest known literary work in Kannada is Kavirajamarg, written by the Rashtrakuta King Nripatunga Amoghavargha I.
▸ Pampa, known as the father of Kannada, wrote his great poetic works Adi Purana and Vikramarjiva Vijaya in the AD 10th century.

Malayalam

▸ The language of Malayalam emerged around the AD 11th century. By 15th century, Malayalam was recognised as an independent language.
▸ Bhasa Kautilya, a commentary on Arthashastra and Kokashndisam are two great works.
▸ Rama Panikkar and Ramanujan Ezhuthachan are well known authors of Malayalam literature.

Tamil

▸ Tamil is the mother language of the Dravidian language family.
▸ The Sangam literature is a collection of long and short poems composed by various poets in praise of numerous heroes and heroines.
▸ There are about 30000 lines of poetry, which are arranged in eight anthologies called Ettuttokai.

Persian and Urdu

▸ Urdu emerged as an independent language towards the end of the AD 4th century.
▸ Urdu as a language was born out of the interaction between Hindi and Persian.
▸ Urdu became more popular in the early 18th century.
▸ The earliest Urdu poet is supposed to be Khusrau.
▸ Urdu has given us a new form of poem, that is called a nazm.

Hindi

▸ Hindi is a direct descendant of the Sanskrit language, through Prakrit and Apabhramsha.
▸ It is spoken largely in North India.
▸ Evolution of Hindi literature can be better understood through four stages of Adi Kal, Bhakti Kal, Riti-kavya Kal and Adhunik kal.

Literature

Bengali Literature

▸ Raja Ram Mohan Roy wrote in Bengali besides English, which gave an impetus to Bengali literature.
▸ Ishwar Chandra Vidhyasagar (1820-91) and Akshay Kumar Dutta (1820-86) were the two other writers of this early period.
▸ Sharat Chandra Chatterji (1876-1938) and RC Dutta, a noted historian and a prose writer, too contributed to the making of Bengali literature.
▸ But the most important name that influenced the whole of India was that of Rabindra Nath Tagore (1861-1941). Novels, dramas, short stories, criticism, music and essays, all flowed from his pen. He won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1913 for his Geetanjali.

Assamese Literature

▸ Like Bengali, Assamese also developed in response to the Bhakti movement.
▸ Shankaradeva, who introduced Vaishnavism in Assam helped in the growth of Assamese poetry. Even the Puranas were translated in Assamese.
▸ The earliest Assamese literature consisted of buranjis (court chronicles). Shankaradeva has left several devotional poems, which people sang with rapturous pleasure, but it was only after 1827 that more interest was shown in producing Assamese literature.

Oriya Literature

▸ Oriya language shows the maximum influence of Sanskrit. It originated in the AD 9th century and its literary development took place in the 13th century.
▸ Worth mentioning in Oriya literature are Fakirmohan Senapati and Radha Nath Ray, whose writings deserve considerable attention in the history of Oriya literature.
▸ The works of Upendra Bhanja (1670-1720) were important as they ushered a new period of Oriya literature. In Odisha, the works of Saraladasa are regarded as the first works of Oriya literature.

Punjabi Literature

▸ Punjabi is a language with several shades. It is being written in two scripts, Gurumukhi and Persian.
▸ Guru Nanak was the first poet in Punjabi. Some other contemporary poets, mostly Sufi saints, used to sing in this language.
▸ Guru Gobind Singh, the 10th guru, was educated in Patna (Bihar), where he learnt Persian and Sanskrit.
▸ He has composed two savaiyyas in Punjabi, but these are not a part of the Adi Granth. Similar is the popularity of Bulley Shah, who was a Sufi saint. He has composed a large number of songs.

Indian Literature in English Language

▸ English came into India with the British and soon became a language of formal education. Some of the early Indian works in English were written by Raja Rammohan Roy, Henry Vivian Derozio and Madhusudan Dutt. Aurobindo Ghosh wrote his epic poem 'Savitri: A Legend and a Symbol' in English.
▸ India's only Nobel laureate in literature Rabindranath Tagore wrote some of his work originally in English and did some of his own English translation from Bengali. Sarojini Naidu and Jawaharlal Nehru also wrote in English. Nehru's 'The Discovery of India' and 'Glimpses of World History' are quite popular.
▸ Some notable Indian poets, who write in English are Nissim Ezekiel, Dom Moraes, Arun Kolakar and Dilip Chitre. Other notable Indian writers are Khushwant Singh, Salman Rushdie, Vikram Seth, Arundhati Roy, Kamala Markandaya, Kiran Desai, Jhumpa Lahiri etc.

Music

The music of India is said to be one of the oldest unbroken musical traditions in the World. Many different legends have grown up concerning the origin and development of Indian classical music.

Hindustani Music

ClassicalMusic
▸ Hindustani classical music originated in North India around the 13th and 14th centuries. In contrast to Carnatic music, the Hindustani classical music was not only influenced by ancient Hindu musical traditions and Vedic philosophy, but also by the Persian elements.
▸ Hindustani music is based on the Raga system. The Raga is a melodic scale, comprising of notes from the basic seven – Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni.
▸ On the basis of notes included in it, each raga attains a different character. The form of the raga is also determined by the particular pattern of ascent and descent of the notes, which may not be strictly linear.
▸ Hindustani classical music is primarily vocal-centric. The major vocal forms associated with Hindustani classical music are the khayal, ghazal, dhrupad, dhammar, tarana and thumri.
Thumri
It is an informal vocal form of Hindustani classical music and is said to have begun with the court of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, the Nawab of Oudh.
Dadra
It refers to two separate, but originally linked concepts in Hindustani classical music. The Dadra tala consists of six beats in two equal divisions of three. It is mostly performed in Agra and in the Bundelkhand region.
Qawwali
It is a form of Sufi devotional music. Originally, it was performed at mainly Sufi shrines or dargahs. Its roots can be traced back to 8th century Persia. Songs in qawwali are mostly in Urdu and Punjabi languages.
Ghazal
It is a poetic form consisting of rhyming couplets and a refrain, with each line sharing the same meter. It is an ancient form originating in 6th century Arabic verse. It spread into South Asia in the 12th century, due to the influence of Sufi mystics.
Hori
It is a genre of semi-classical singing, which is popular in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. It comes under the category of season songs.
Kirtan
It is a call and response chanting or responsory performed in Indian devotional traditions. It is closely associated with the Bhakti movement.

Gharana

There is a rich tradition of Gharanas in classical Hindustani music. These schools or Gharanas have their basis in the traditional mode of musical training and education. Every Gharana has its own distinct features.
Gwalior Gharana
This is the oldest among all the Khayal Gayaki (vocal) styles. The distinctive feature of this style of singing has been noted to be its lucidity and simplicity.
Agra Gharana
The Agra Gharana places great importance on developing forcefulness and deepness in the voice, so that the notes are powerful and resonant.
Kirana Gharana
It derives its name from the birth-place of Abdul Kharim Khan of Kirana near Kurukshetra. In the Kirana style of singing, the swara is used to create an emotional mood by means of elongation and use of Kana-s.
Rampur Sahaswan Gharana
In Rampur Sahaswan Gharana, there is a stress on the clarity of swara and the development and elaboration of the raga is done through a stepwise progression.
Patiala Gharana
Patiala Gharana is regarded as an off-shoot of the Delhi Gharana. The Patiala Gharana is characterised by the use of greater rhythm play and by Layakari with the abundant use of Bols, particularly Bol tans.
Delhi Gharana
The Delhi Gharana was represented by Tanras Khan and Shabbu Khan. The highlights of Delhi Gharana are pleasing vistaar and exquisite compositions.
Bhendi Bazaar Gharana
The most distinctive feature of the Bhendi Bazaar Gharana is the presentation of Khayal, which is open voice, using Akar. There is a stress on breath-control and singing of long passages in one breath is highly regarded in the Gharana.
Banaras Gharana
The Banaras Gharana evolved as a result of great tilting style of khayal singing known by Thumri singers of Banaras and Gaya.
Mewati Gharana
The Mewati Gharana gives importance to developing the mood of the raga through the notes forming it and its style is Bhava Pradhan. It also gives equal importance to the meaning of the text.
Musical Instruments and Instrumentalists

Stringed Instruments

1. Rudra Veena

Asad Ali Khan, Zia Moin-ud-din Dagar

2. Santoor

Shiv Kumar Sharma,

3. Sarod

Buddhadev Dasgupta, Ali Akbar Khan, Amjad Ali khan, Bahadur Khan, Sharan Rani, Zarin S Sharma

4. Sarangi

Ustad Binda Khan

5. Sitar

Ravi Shankar, Hara Shankar Bhattacharya, Nikhil, Banerjee, Vilayat Khan, Mustaq Ali Khan

6. Surb Ahar

Sajjad Hussain, Annapurna

7. Veena

Doraiswamy Iyengar, Chittibabu, Emani Sankara Shastri, Dhanammal, S Bala Chandran, KR Kumaraswamy

8. Violin

Gajanan Rao Joshi, MS Gopal Krishnan, TN Krishnan, Baluswamy,
Dikshitar, Dwaran Venkataswamy Naidu Lalyuli G Jayaraman, Mysore T
Chowdiah, VG Jog

Wind Instruments

9. Flute

TR Mahalingam, N Ramani, Hari Prasad Chaurasia, Pannalal Ghosh

10. Nadaswaran

Sheikh Chinna Moula, Neeruswamy Pillai, Rajaratanam Pillai

11. Shehnai

Bismillah Khan

Percussion (Strikting Thumping) Instruments

12. Mridangam

Palghat Mani Iyer, Karaikudi R Mani, Palghat Raghu

13. Pakhawag

Pt Ayodhya Prasad, Gopal Das, Babu Ram Shanker Pagaldas

14. Tabla

Zakir Hussain, Nikhil Ghosh, Kishan Maharaj, Alla Rakha Khan, Pandit Samta Prasad, Kumar Bose, Latif Khan

15. Kanjira

Pudukkotai Dakshinamurthi Pillai

Instruments Vocalists

Carnatic

MS Subbulakshmi, Balamuralikrishna, Bombay Jaishree, HK Raghavendra, Aryakudi Ramanujan Iyenegar Venkataram, Sitarajam, Mani Krishnaswamy,
Akhil Krishnan, ML Vasanthakumari, MD Ramanathan, GN Balasubramaniam

Dhrupad

Ustad Rahim Fahim-ud-din Dagar, Zahir-ud-din Dagar, Wasif-ud-din Dagar,
Bundecha Bandhu, Pt Abhay Narayan Mallick, Pt Ritwik Sanyal, Uday Bhawalkar

Hindustani

Shubha Mudgal, Madhup Mudgal, Mukul Shivputra, Pandit Jasraj, Parveen Sultana, Naina Devi, Girija Devi, Ustad Ghulam Mustafa Khan, Gangubai Hangal, Krishna Hangal, V Rajput, Kumar Gandharva, Faiyyaz Khan, Mallikariun Mansur.

Thumri

Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, Ustad Mazhar Ali Khan, Ustad Zawad Ali Khan, Poornima Chaudhary, Shanti Heerananda, Naina Devi, Rita Ganguly

Qawwali

Ghulam Hasan Niyazi, Sultan Niyazi, Ghulam Farid Nizami, Hussain Khan Bandanawaji, Aslam Sabaari, Chand Nizami

Dance

Indian Classical Dances

India has an old tradition of thousands of years in regard to fine arts and classical and folk music and dances. Some of the world-famous dance forms that originated and evolved in India are Bharatnatyam, Kathak, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Manipuri, Mohiniattam and Odissi.

Bharatnatyam

▸ Bharatnatyam is one of the most popular classical Indian dances. Bharatnatyam is more popular in South Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
▸ The music accompanying this dance is Carnatic music. It evolved out of the Devadasi system of South Indian temples. Two famous styles are Pandanallur and Tanjore.
▸ Famous dancers associated with Bharatnatyam are E Krishna Iyer, Rukmini Devi Arundale and Anna Pavlova.

Kathak

▸ Kathak is one of the most important classical dances of India. Kathak is said to be derived from the word katha, meaning the art of storytelling.
▸ Famous centres are Lucknow and Jaipur. Lucknow school depicts Mughal Court etiquette, while the Jaipur school depicts stories of Rajput kings and Gods. Famous exponents are Sitara Devi, Sambhu Maharaj, Uma Sharma Shovana Narayan etc.

Kathakali

▸ Kathakali is the classical dance form of Kerala. The word Kathakali literally means story play.
▸ Kathakali is considered as one of the most magnificent theatres of imagination and creativity.
▸ Famous exponents of Kathakali are Vallathol Narayan Menon, Kunju Kurup, Guru Gopinath etc.

Kuchipudi

Kuchipudi is one of the classical dance forms of South India. Kuchipudi exhibits scenes from the Hindu epics, legends and mythological tales. Famous exponents of Kuchipudi are Lakshmi Narayan Shastri, Raja and Radha Reddy, Swapana Sundari and Yamini Krishnamurti.

Manipuri

▸ Manipuri is one of the six major classical dances of India. The most striking part of Manipuri dance is its colourful decoration, lightness of dancing foot, delicacy of abhinaya (drama), lilting music and poetic charm. Manipuri dance is not only a medium of worship and delight but also essential for all socio-cultural ceremonies of Manipuri people. Popular exponents are Javeri sisters, Rita Devi, Nirmala Mehta, Guru Bipin Singh etc.

Mohiniattam

▸ Mohiniattam from Kerala is a solo female dance and is known for its rhythmic and unbroken flow of the body movements. Mohiniattam has the grace and elegance of Bharatanatyam and vigour of Kathakali.
▸ Famous exponents of this dance form are Kalyani Amma, Vaijayanthimala, Bharati Shivaji and Hema Malini.

Odissi

▸ Odissi is one of the famous classical Indian dances from Odisha state.
▸ It is a graceful and sensous dance style and involves the tribhanga (three bends) posture.
▸ The (three bends) symbolise the means to escape the limitations of the body.
▸ Famous dancers of Odissi are Indrani Rehman, Sonal Mansingh, Kiran Sengal, Rani Karna, Sharon Lowen and Myrta Barvie.
Folk Dances and Tribal Dances in India

Kathakeertan, Lezim, Dandaniya, Tamasha, Gafa, Dahikala, Lavani, Mauni, Dasavtar

Huttari, Suggi Kunitha, Yakashagana

Kaikottikali, Kaliyattam, Tappatikkali

Kolattam, Pinnal Kolattam, Kummi, Kavadi, Karagam

Ghanta Mardala, Veedhi Natakam, Burrakatha

Ghumara Sanchar, Chadya Dandanata, Chhau

Paschim Banga

Kathi, Chhau, Baul, Kirtan, Jatra, Lama

Asom

Bihu, Khel, Gopal, Rash Lila, Tabal Chongli, Canoe

Giddha (women), Bhangra (men)

Rauf, Hikat

Jhora, Jhali, Dangli, Mahasu, Jadda, Jhainta, Chharhi

Jhumar, Ras Leela, Phag dance, Daph, Dhamal, Loor, Gugga, Khoria, Gagor

Garba, Dandiya Rass, Tippani, Gomph

Ginad, Chakri, Gangore, Teratali, Khayal, Jhulan Leela, Jhuma, Suisini

Jata Jatin, Jadur, Chhau, Kathaputli, Bakho, Jhijhiya, Samochakwa, Karma, Jatra, Natna

Nautanki, Thora, Chappeli, Raslila, Kajri

Karma

Laho

Mando

Khantumm

Choliya, Pandav Nritya, Jagars, Jhora

Classical Dancers of India

Bharatnatyam

Bala Saraswati, CV Chandrasekhar, Leela Samson, Mrinalini Sarabhai, Padma Subramanyam, Rukmini Devi, Sanyukta Panigrahi, Sonal Mansingh, Yamini Krishnamurti

Kathak

Bharti Gupta, Birju Maharaj, Damayanti Joshi, Durga Das, Gopi Krishna, Kumudini Lakhia, Sambhu Maharaj, Sitara Devi

Kuchipudi

Josyula Seetharamaiah, Vempathi Chinna Sathyam

Manipuri

Guru Bipin Sinha, Jhaveri Sisters, Nayana Jhaveri, Nirmala Mehta, Savita Mehta

Odissi

Debaprasad Das, Dhirendra Nath Patnaik, Indrani Rahman, Kelucharan Mahapatra, Priyambada Mohanty

Kathakali

Mrinalini Sarabhai, Guru Shankaran, Namboodripad, Thottam Shankaran, Kutti Nayyar, Shankar Kurup, KC Pannikar, TT Ram Kulti Nayyar, etc

Mohiniyattam

Protima Devi, Sanyukta Panigrahi, Sonal Mansingh, Pankaj Charan Das, Kelucharan Mahapatra, Madhvi Mudgal, etc

Architecture

Indian architecture, which has evolved through centuries, is the result of socio-economic and geographical conditions of the region. Indian architecture evolved in various stages in different parts and regions of the country. Apart from the natural evolution Indian architecture was generally affected by many great and important historic developments.

Rajput Architecture

▸ The Rajputs were great patrons of art and architecture, the finest examples being their forts and palaces. The Rajput palaces are complex compositions built as inner citadels surrounded by the city and enclosed by a fortified wall as at Chittorgarh and Jaisalmer. Some forts, such as those at Bharatpur and Deeg, were protected by wide moats.
▸ The palaces of Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Udaipur and Kota represent the maturity of the Rajput style.

Deccan Style

▸ The architecture of the Deccan is marked by its distinct originality and independence of style, unlike the architectural styles of the other provinces, which combined both the temple architecture and the Islamic building ideals. It derived its elements from the architectural styles of the Sultan of Delhi and that of the distant Persia.
▸ Some key features of this style are the presence of bulbous domes with lotus neck, military style of architecture, presence of thick walls and combination of gateway and mosque-like Charminar.

Mughal Style

▸ The medieval period saw great developments in the field of architecture. With the coming of Muslims to India, many new features came to be introduced in buildings. The development of Muslim style of architecture of this period can be called the Indo-Islamic architecture or the Indian architecture influenced by Islamic Art.
▸ The Indo-Islamic style was neither strictly Islamic nor strictly Hindu.
▸ The earliest building of this period is Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque and the Qutub Minar at Delhi.

Puppetry

▸ The early puppet shows in India dealt mostly with histories of great kings. Princes and heroes and also political satire in rural areas.
▸ Slowly, this art form emerged from the precincts of the temple and villages to reach out to the outside world performing on various social and contemporary themes in Indian towns and cities.

Painting

The history of Indian paintings is just about as old as the history of the people of India. The most primitive instances of paintings in India can be traced back to cave paintings.

Mughal School

▸ This school has a specific style of South Asian painting. Usually, it was confined to miniatures either as book depictions or as individual works to be kept in albums.
▸ This practice materialised from Persian miniature painting, with Indian influences of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain.
▸ It wonderfully blossomed during the Mughal Empire. Later, this school of painting reached other Indian courts of Muslims and Hindus and afterwards Sikhs.
▸ Akbar and Jahangir were exceptionally great patrons of this painting. Mughal School of painting revolved around court scenes, portraits, hunting scenes, lovers, battle fronts etc.

Rajput School

▸ This school progressed and thrived during the 18th century in the majestic Rajputana courts.
▸ This school of painting flooded from the approach of Mughal painting.
▸ A typical style of painting with particular common characteristics came up in every Rajput realm.
▸ This school illustrated an assortment of themes like landscapes, events from the Mahabharata, Ramayana, Krishna's life and about human beings.
Cultural Heritage

Mahabodhi Temple

Bihar

Qutub Minar

Champaner Achaelogical Park

Churches of Old Goa

Jantar Mantar

Hampi

Pattadakal

Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus

Mumbai, Maharashtra

Sanchi Stupa

Khajuraho

Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka

Konark Sun Temple

Mahabalipuram

Great Living Chola Temples

Agra Fort

Mountain Railway of India

Bengal School

▸ This school was a fashion of art, which progressed during the British Raj of India in early 20th century.
▸ Indian Nationalism was greatly linked to this painting. British art administrators also supported and promoted it.
▸ Raja Ravi Verma and Abanindranath Tagore were amongst the pioneer artists of this school. Today's renowned artists, who belong to this School include Nilima Dutta, Sudip Roy, Paresh Maiti and Bikash Bhattacharjee.

World History

Mesopotamian Civilisation

▸ It is the oldest civilisation of the world. Mesopotamia is the land between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates.
▸ Mesopotamians were the first to use potter's wheel, to make glass ware, to evolve a proper system of writing called Cuneiform. Cuneiform script was deciphered by Henry Rawlinson.
▸ Mesopotamians discovered sexagesimal system of counting (based on sixties), Pythogoras theorem and the length of day and night.

Chinese Civilisation

▸ The earliest civilisation was by the Shang (Chou) Dynasty, followed by the Chin and Han dynasties.
▸ In 3rd century BC, the ruler of China dynasty built the Great Wall.
▸ Chinese script was pictographic and their calendar was a combination of solar-lunar calendar.
▸ Silk became the chief item of export during the Hangs.
▸ The two major religions were Taoism and Confucianism. They invented water clock, abacus and umbrella.

Iranian Civilisation

▸ This civilisation developed in around 6th century BC by the Achaemenid Empire under its first ruler, Cyrus. His capital was at Pasaragadae.
▸ His successors were Darius I and Darius III. The Achaemenids introduced the use of gold and silver coins.
▸ Their main religion was Zoroast- rianism, founded by Zarathustra or Zoroaster. Their official language was Aramaic.

Greek Civilisation

▸ The civilisation developed around 800 BC, when the small villages clustered to form city-states.
▸ They worshipped Zeus (Sky God), Poseidon (Sea God), Apollo (Sun God), Athena (Goddess of victory) etc.
▸ In the Battle of Marathon (490 BC), Greeks defeated King Darius I. Alexander was the greatest Greek ruler.
▸ The Olympic Games originated in Greece. Iliad and Odyssey are among the best epics of the world written by Homer.

Roman Civilisation

▸ Italy was the centre of the civilisation. The city of Rome was founded by Romulus in 1000 BC on the bank of river Tiber.
▸ The war between Carthage and Rome is known as Punic War (264 BC to 146 BC).
▸ Julius Caesar, one of the generals, murdered Pompey, another general and occupied the throne. He was attached to the Egyptian queen Cleopatra. Caesar was succeeded by Octavian and Diocletion.
▸ Romans worshipped the planets. They developed the Latin language.
▸ Lucretius, Seneca, Cicero and Marus were the famous Roman philosophers and Horace and Virgil were the poets. Tacitus and Pliny were the historians.
▸ They invented 'concrete', useful for constructing buildings.

Renaissance

▸ The Renaissance or ''Revival of learning'' started in the AD 14th century in Italy.
▸ The fall of constantinople by the Turks in 1453 led to the dispersal of scholars throughout Italy. Renaissance led to the revival of classical learning, art and architecture humanism. Renaissance writers-Dante, Petrorch, Boccacciro and Machiavelli, came to the fore.
▸ Renaissance painters—Leonardo da Vinci (The last Supper and Monalisa), Michelangelo (The last Judgement and the fall of man) and Raphael (Madonna) emerged during Renaissance.
▸ The movement also helped in the development of printing press.

Reformation (16th Century)

▸ This movement was started in Germany by Martin Luther, by publicly protesting the sale of Letters of Indulgence.
▸ It was a revolt against Roman Catholic Church. As a result, Western Europe was split between Roman Catholic and protestant countries.

Glorious Revolution of England (1688)

▸ This revolution started against the policies of King James II. He tried to secure freedom of worship for Catholics.
▸ This united the Whigs and Tories of Anglican Church against him, and they invited William of Orange to occupy English throne.
▸ James II threw the great seal into the river Thames and fled to France. The event is known as Glorious or Bloodless Revolution.
▸ It ended the despotic rule of the Stuarts, established the modern budgetary system and the Bill of Rights (1689) was passed that settled down the problem of succession.

Industrial Revolution

▸ It began in Britain in AD 1750 with the invention of Spinning Jenny by Hargreaves, Water frame by Richard Arkwright (1769), Mule by Samuel Crompton (1779), Power loom by Emmund Cartwright (1785) and Steam engine by James Watt (1769).
▸ This fastened the production of cloth and better quality yarn were produced. The economic progress also affected the culture and society of the people.

American Revolution

▸ George Washington, the first President of America was the pioneer of this revolution.
▸ Boston Tea Party (1773) A group of citizens of Boston dumped the crates of tea, loaded on a ship of East India Company into the sea. This was because of the problem on tea tax.
▸ On 4th July, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was issued by Thomas Jafferson.
▸ The war ended with the Treaty of Paris in AD 1783.
▸ Benjamin Franklin established the American Philosophical Society. Americans were the first to have a written Constitution.

French Revolution

▸ The Revolution initiated on 5th May, 1789 during the kingship of Louis XVI.
▸ The immediate cause of the revolution was the extravagant expenditure and inefficiency by Louis XV and Louis XVI. Other causes were social inequality, heavy taxation etc.
▸ Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau were the French writers and thinkers of the period.
▸ Liberty, Equality and Fraternity were the watch of the revolution.

Unification of Germany

▸ This was the result of the Blood and Iron Policy of Bismarck, the Prime Minister of King William I.
▸ After the Napoleonic war (1792-1855), the 38 independent states were unified under the king of Prussia. From 1815 to 1850, Austria ruled over the German confederation.
▸ Bismarck defeated Austria and dissolved the German confederation.
▸ He founded a new confederation of 22 states in 1866. The unification was completed with the Prussia-France War (1870), in which the French Emperor Louis Bonaparte was defeated.
▸ William I, the king of Prussia was declared as the Emperor of Germany at Versailles in France.

Important Wars Of The 20th Century

Russo-JapaneseWar (1904-05)
The conflict arising from the rivalry of Russia and Japan for control of Manchuria and Korea resulted in the war. Russia was forced to surrender Korea, the Liaotung Peninsula and Sakhalin to Japan.
FirstWorldWar (1914-18)
International conflict began between Austria and Serbia. The chief contestants were the Central Powers (Germany and Austria) and the Triple Entente (Britain, France and Russia). Many other countries joined as the war began. The naval blockade of Germany caused severe food shortages and helped to end the war.
Sino-JapaneseWars (1931-33)
Two wars between China and Japan, marking the beginning and the end of Japanese imperial expansion on the Asian mainland. The first war in 1894-95 arose from rivalry for control of Korea. The second war in 1937-45 developed from Japan's seizure of Manchuria.
SecondWorldWar (1939-45)
International conflict arising from disputes provoked by the expansionist policies of Germany in Europe and Japan in the far East. The axis powers- Germany, Italy and (after September 1940) Japan-controlled most of Europe and much of Northern Africa, China and Asia. The United States stayed out of the war until 7th December, 1941.
Arab-IsraeliWar (1948-1949, 1956, 1967, 1973-1974)
Conflict between Israel and the Arab states. After the creation of the state of Israel (14th May, 1948), troops from Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria and Trans Jordan (Modern Jordan) invaded the new nation. Simmering Arab-Israeli hostilities exploded into war in 1967, when Israel, assailed by Palestinian guerillas, launched a massive primitive strike against Egypt, the Arab world's leading state.
KoreanWar (1950-1953)
Conflict between North Korea, supported by China and South Korea supported by UN forces dominated by the USA. Negotiations continued for two years before a truce was agreed on in July 1953.
VietnamWar (1954-1975)
Conflict between US backed South Vietnam and the Viet Cong, who had the support of communist North Vietnam. It followed the partition of Vietnam. In 1975, South Vietnam was overrun by North Vietnamese forces, and the country was united under Communist rule.
Iran-IraqWar (1980-1990)
War began shortly after the Iranian Revolution of 1979. Iraq wanted control over oil-rich Iranian border territory.
FalklandWar (1982)
Military conflict between Great Britain and Argentina on the question of sovereignty over the Falkland Islands led to the war. Britain won the war.
GulfWar (1991)
Military action by a US led coalition to expel Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Kuwait was liberated (26th February, 1991) and a ceasefire was declared on 28th February.
BosnianWar (1992-98)
Ethnically rooted war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, a republic of Yugoslavia with a multiethnic population-Muslims, Serbs and Croats.
US-AfghanWar (2001)
Military action by US against Afghanistan in protest against the 11th September's, attack on WTC Towers.
GulfWar II (2003)
Military action by a US led coalition to oust Saddam Hussain from power in Iraq. It was conducted on the pretext of Iraq possessing Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD).