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Physiographic divisions of India are as follows: ▸ The Himalayan Range of Mountains ▸ The Peninsular Plateau ▸ The Great Plains of India ▸ The Coastal Plains ▸ The Islands of India
▸ Himalayas means 'Abode of snow' and they are young fold mountains of tertiary period, which were folded over Tethys sea due to inter-continental collision. ▸ They are one of the youngest fold mountain ranges in the world and comprises mainly sedimentary rocks. ▸ They stretch from the Indus river in the West to the Brahmaputra river in the East. ▸ The Pamirs, popularly known as the Roof of the World is the connecting link between the Himalayas and the high ranges of Central Asia. ▸ The total length is about 2500 km with varying width of 240 to 320 km and a total area of 500000 km2. They consists of three parallel ranges such as: (i) Himadri (Greater Himalayas) (ii) Himachal (Lesser Himalayas) (iii) Shiwaliks (Outer Himalayas) InnerHimalaya or Greater Himalaya (Himadri) ▸ Northern most part of the Himalayan range, it is the world's highest part with an average altitude of 6100 m above sea level. ▸ It includes world's highest peak, Mt Everest (8848 m) located in Nepal. It is known as Sagarmatha in Nepal and Chomolangma in China. ▸ Zaskar range is situated on the Western part of Greater Himalayas. It includes Nanga Parbat (8126 m Kashmir- Himachal region) and Nepal Dhaulagiri (8172 m).
▸ Kanchenjunga (8598 m, Sikkim) Makalu (8481 m Nepal) Mansalu (8156 m Nepal) Nanga Parbat (8108 m Jammu and Kashmir) Kamet and Nandadevi. Important Passes in Inner Himalaya
Karakoram Pass
Jammu and Kashmir
India to China
Burzil Pass
Kashmir valley to Central Asia
Zojila Pass
Srinagar to Leh
Shipki la Pass
Himachal Pradesh
Shimla to Gartok (Tibet)
Jelep la Pass
Sikkim
Kalimpong West Bengal to Lhasa (Tibet)
Entry of Brahmaputra river
MiddleHimalaya or Lesser Himalaya (Himachal) ▸ From West to East middle Himalaya is divided into following ranges: ▸ Pirpanjal range (Jammu and Kashmir). It is longest range of the middle Himalaya ▸ Dhauladhar range (Himachal Pradesh) ▸ Mussoorie range (Uttarakhand) ▸ Nagtibba range (Uttarakhand) ▸ Mahabharat range (Nepal) Important Passes in Middle Himalaya
Pirpanjal Pass
Jammu-Srinagar road passes from this pass
Banihal Pass
Jammu-Srinagar NH-IA passes from this pass. Jawahar tunnel (India's longest road tunnel)
Rohtang Pass
Kullu-keylang road passes from this pass
▸ Average height of the Middle Himalaya is 3700-4500 km. ▸ Mountains and valleys are disposed in all direction. ▸ Important hill resorts are Shimla, Ranikhet, Almora, Nainital and Darjeeling. OuterHimalayas (Shiwalik) ▸ Shiwaliks are characterised by fault scraps anticlinals crest and synclinical hills. ▸ Average elevation is 900-1200 m. ▸ It is the youngest part of the mountain. ▸ It forms the foothills of Himalayas. TransHimalayan Zones ▸ This zone lies to the North of the Great Himalayas. ▸ Some important ranges of this zone are Karakoram and Ladakh etc. The highest peak in region is K2 or Godwin Austin or Qagir (8611m in Pak occupied Kashmir). Mount K2 is also the 2nd highest peak of the world and the highest peak of India, located in Karakoram range. ▸ Mt Rakaposhi is the highest peak in Ladakh range and the steepest peak in the world. ▸ Siachin glacier is second largest glacier of the world outside the polar region (more than 72 km) and is located in Nubra valley. Ladakh, Baltaro, Biafo, Batura, Hispar are the other important glaciers in this region. Mountain Peaks : Quick Digest
Highest peak of Satpura
Dhupgarh
Highest peak of Aravalli
Gurushikhar in Mount Abu
Highest peak of Western Ghat
Anaimudi
Highest peak of Eastern Ghat
Mahendragiri
Highest peak of Nilgiri
Doda Beta
Himalayan Mountain Peaks
Mt Everest
8848
Nepal-China
Mt K2
8611
PoK (India)
Kanchenjunga
8586
Nepal-India
Lhotse
8511
Makalu
8481
Cho oyu
8201
Dhaulagiri
8172
Nepal
Manaslu
8163
Nanga Parbat
8125
Pakistan
Annapurna
8078
Gasherbrum I
8068
Pakistan-China
Broad peak
8047
Mountain Peaks in India Highest Peak Height(m)
Nanda Devi
7817
Uttarakhand
Saltoro
7742
Kangto
7090
Arunachal Pradesh
Reo Purgil
6816
Saramati
3841
Nagaland
Sandakphu
3636
West Bengal
Khayang
3114
Manipur
2695
Kerala
2636
Tamil Nadu
▸ To the South of the Himalayas and to the North of the peninsula lies the great plains of North India. ▸ It extends from West to East for 2400 km having an average width in between 150-300 km. ▸ The plains are formed by depositional works of three major river systems Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra. ▸ The vast plains of North India are alluvial in nature and the Western most portion is occupied by the desert. ▸ It is composed of Bhangar (old alluvium), Khadar (new alluvium) in the river bed, Bhabar (porous gravel ridden plains at the foothills of Shiwalik and Streams disappear here) and Terai (damp, thick forest area, where Bhabar streams reappear). Difference Between Bhangar and Khadar
These are low plains. composed of older alluvium.
The deposit of fresh alluvium every year brought by the Himalayas rivers makes this belt of Northern plains.
It contains calcareous deposits locally known as Kankar.
It does not contain calcareous deposits of calcium.
Difference Between Terai and Bhabar
Terai is a broad long zone South of Bhabar plain.
Bhabar is a long narrow plain along the foothills.
It is a marshy damp area covered with dense forest.
It is a pebble studded zone of porous beds.
It is 20-30 km wide.
It is 9-16 km wide.
It is suitable for agriculture.
It is unsuitable for agriculture.
Sub-Divisions of the Great Plain
The PunjabHaryana Plain
It extends from Punjab in the West to Yamuna (Haryana) in East. They are composed of Dhaya (Heavily gullied bluffs) and Bets (Khadar Plains).
The Ganga Plain
It extends from Delhi to Kolkata across the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. The Ganga and its tributaries deposit large amount of alluvium and make this extensive plain more fertile.
The Brahmaputra Plain
Low level plain formed by Brahmaputra river system is situated between Eastern Himalaya in North and lower Ganga plain and Indo- Bangladesh border in the West.
▸ The Punjab – Haryana plain is drained by five rivers and the intervening area between the river is known as doab. From South to North doabs are as follows:
Bist Doab
Between Beas and Sutlej
Bari Doab
Between Beas and Ravi
Rachna Doab
Between Ravi and Chenab
Chaj Doab
Between Chenab and Jhelum
▸ The Sambhar (largest), Didwana and Kuchaman lakes are situated to the North of Luni basin.
▸ Rising from the height of 150m above the river plains up to an elevation of 600-1000 m is the irregular triangle known as the peninsular plateau. ▸ It is composed of the old cystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks. ▸ It covers a total of 160000 km2 (about half of total land area of the country). ▸ Narmada, which flows through a rift valley divides the region into two parts: the Central Highlands in the North and the Deccan plateau in the South. ▸ The Deccan plateau is the largest plateau in India. Plateaus of Peninsular India The Central Highland ▸ The Central Highlands lie to the North of the Narmada river covering a major area of the Malwa plateau. ▸ The Aravalis range is bounded by the Central Highlands on the North-West and Vindhyan range on the South. ▸ It is also called as Madhya Bharat Pathar. The Deccan Plateau ▸ The Deccan plateau is a triangular land lying to the South of the river Narmada. It is made up of lava flows in the cretaceous era through the fissure eruptions. ▸ It comprises Maharashtra plateau, Karnataka plateau and the Telangana and Rayalseema plateau (Andhra Pradesh). ▸ The general slope is from West to East. ▸ The Eastern and Western Ghats demarcate the Eastern andWestern edges of the Deccan plateau. Meghalaya Plateau ▸ This plateau is separated from main block of the peninsular plateau by a gap called Garo-Raj Mahal gap. ▸ From East toWest, the plateau comprises Garo, Khasi, Jaintia and Mikir hills. The Bundelkhand Upland ▸ It is located to the South of Yumana river between Madhya Bharat Pathar and the Vindhyan scrap lands and is composed of granites and gneiss. The Marwar Upland ▸ It lies East of Aravali range, made up of sandstone, shale and limestone of Vindhyan period. Chhotanagpur Plateau ▸ It covers mostly Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Purulia of West Bengal. ▸ It is composed mainly of Gondwana rocks with patches of granites and gneisses and Deccan lavas. Hill Ranges of the Peninsula Aravali Range ▸ Aravalis are one of the world's oldest fold mountain running in North-East to South-East direction from Delhi to Palanpur in Gujarat. It is an example of relict mountain. ▸ It separates the fertile regions of Udaipur and Jaipur regions from the semi-arid regions of Rajasthan. ▸ Piplighat, Barr, Dewair and Desuri passes allow movements by roads and railways. Vindhyan Range ▸ This range acts as a water divide between Ganga system with the river system of South India. The Maikal range forms a connecting link between Vindhya and Satpura. Satpura Range ▸ It is a series of seven mountains running in East-West direction South of Vindhya and in between the Narmada and Tapi. ▸ It comprises Rajpipla hills, Mahadeo hills and Maikal Range. Eastern Ghats ▸ It comprises the discontinuous and low hills that are highly eroded by the rivers such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauveri etc. ▸ Some of the important ranges include the Javadi hills, the Velikonda range, the Nallamalai hills, the Mahendragiri hills etc. Western Ghats ▸ Western ghats are locally known by different names such as Sahyadri in Maharashtra, Nilgiri hills in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and Anaimalai hills, Cardamom hills in Kerala. ▸ It runs from the South of the valley of river Tapi to Kanyakumari. ▸ The Sahyadris upto 16° North latitude are mainly composed of basalt. There are three important passes in the Sahyadris (i) Thalghat (between Mumbai and Pune) (ii) Palghat (between Palakkad and Coimbatore) (iii) Bhorghat (between Mumbai and Nashik) ▸ The Eastern and the Western Ghats meet each other at the Nilgiri hill. Difference Between Eastern Ghat and Western Ghat
Located East to Deccan Plateau.
Located West to Deccan Plateau.
They are parallel to Eastern Coast i.e. Coromandel and Northern Circar etc.
They are parallel to Western Coast, i.e. Konkan, Malabar etc.
Mahanadi, Cauveri, Godavari, Krishna etc rivers are drawn in this land.
Narmada, Tapi, Sabarmati and Mahi etc rivers are drawn in this land.
Mahendragiri with an altitude of 1501 m is the highest peak here.
Anaimudi with an altitude of 2695 m is the highest peak here.
On the basis of location and active geomorphological processes, it can be broadly divided into ▸ Eastern coastal plain ▸ Western coastal plain The Eastern Coastal Plain ▸ The East coastal plain extends from the deltaic plains of the Ganga in the North to Kanyakumari in the South for 1100 km with an average width of 120 km. ▸ Utkal plain extends from deltaic plains of Ganga to the Mahanadi delta for about 400 km. ▸ Andhra coastal plain extends from the Southern limit of Utkal plains to Pulicat lake (Andhra Pradesh). It has large deltas of Krishna and the Godavari rivers. ▸ Tamil Nadu plains extends from the North of Chennai to Kanyakumari in the South. Coromandel coast is a part of this plain. It has the deltaic plains of Cauveri and is popularly called as the Granary of South India. TheWestern Coastal Plain It is about 1500 km long from Surat to Cape Comorin. These plains are sub-divided into six Western Coastal Plain : 1. Kachchh Plains An island sur rounded by sea and lagoons . 2. Kathiawar Plains It extends from Rann of Kuchchh to Daman in the South. 3. Gujarat Plains East to Kachchh and Kathiawar formed by the rivers Narmada, Tapi, Mahi and Sabarmati. 4. Konkan Coast It extends from Daman to Goa for a distance of about 500 km. 5. Karnataka or Kanara Coast It extends from Goa to Mangalore in narrow belt. 6. Malabar Coast/ Kerala Coast It extends between Mangalore and Kanyakumari. The back waters locally called kayals are the shallow lagoons. The largest among these is Vembanad lake followed by Ashtamudi. Difference Between Eastern and Western Coast
Smooth outline
Dissected outline
Occurrence of deltas
Occurrence of estuaries
Less rainfall
More rainfall
Broader
Narrower
Long rivers
Small rivers
▸ India has large number islands, most of which are located in two groups ▸ Andaman and Nicobar group ▸ Lakshadweep group ▸ Group of islands is called archipelago. Andaman and Nicobar Group ▸ It is located in Bay of Bengal. ▸ There are nearly 203 islands in Andaman group, whereas the Nicobar group of islands consist of 7 big and 12 small islands. ▸ Ten degree channel separates Andaman group from Nicobar Duncan passage lies between South Andaman and Little Andaman group. Lakshadweep Group ▸ It is located in Arabian sea. ▸ Minicoy is the second largest and Southern most island and the Nott island is the largest island of this group. ▸ Minicoy is separated from rest of the Lakshadweep by Nine Degree Channel. ▸ Eight degree channel separates Lakshadweep group from Maldives.
▸ Water drains in two directions of the main water divide line of India. 90% of land water drains into Bay of Bengal and the rest drains into Arabian sea. ▸ Those Himalayan rivers, which originated before the formation of Himalaya are known as Antecedent rivers, such as-Indus, Brahmaputra and Sutlej. ▸ India is blessed with hundreds of large and small rivers, which drains the length and breadth of the country. In India, the rivers can be divided into two main groups: (i) Himalayan rivers (ii) Peninsular rivers The river basins have been divided into three parts such as: River Basins
River basin with catchment area of 20000 sq km and above.
River basin with catchment area between 2000- 20000 sq km.
River basin with catchment area below 2000 sq km.
It accounts for 85% of the total run off all the rivers.
It accounts for 7% of the total run off.
It accounts for 8% of the total run off.
Himalayan river system is divided into three major river systems: The Indus System ▸ The Indus, also known as Sindhu, is theWestern most of Himalayan rivers in India. ▸ It is one of the largest river basins of the world covering an area of 1165000 sq km (in India it is 321289 sq km) and a total length of 2880 km (in India 1114 km). ▸ It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu in the Tibetan region near Mansarovar lake. ▸ In Tibet, it is known as Singi Khamban or Lion's mouth. ▸ In Jammu and Kashmir, its Himalayan tributaries are Zanskar, Dras, Gartang, Shyok, Shigar, Nubra, Gilgit etc. ▸ Its most important tributaries, which join Indus at various places, are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. ▸ According to Indus Water Treaty signed between India and Pakistan in 1960, India can utilise only 20% of the total discharge of Indus, Jhelum and Chenab. Indus River System River Source Length(km)
Indus Near Manasarovar Lake
2880
Arabian Sea
Jhelum Verinag
724
Chenab
Chenab Bara Lacha Pass
1180
Indus
Ravi Near Rohtang Pass
725
Beas Near Rohtang Pass
460
Sutlej
The Ganga System ▸ The Ganga system is the second major drainage system of India. ▸ It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3900 m) in the Uttarakhand. Here, it is known as the Bhagirathi. At Dev Prayag, the Bhagirathi, meets the Alaknanda, hereafter, it is known as the Ganga. The Alaknanda has its source in the Satopanth glacier above Badrinath. ▸ The Alaknanda consists of the Dhauli and the Vishnu Ganga, which meet at Joshimath or Vishnu Prayag. ▸ The other tributaries of Alaknanda such as the Pindar joins it at Karna Prayag, while Mandakini or Kali Ganga meets it at Rudra Prayag. ▸ It is 2525 km long of which 1450 km is in Uttarakhand and UP, 445 km in Bihar and 520 km in West Bengal. ▸ The left bank tributaries of Ganga are Ramganga, Gomti, Kali or Sharda, Gandhak, Kosi, Mahanadi. ▸ The right bank tributaries of Ganga are Yamuna and Son. Yamuna joins the Ganga at Allahabad. Kosi is called as Sorrow of Bihar while Damodar is called as Sorrow of Bengal as these cause floods in these regions. Hooghly is a distributory of Ganga flowing through Kolkata. Ganga River System River Source Length (km)
Ganga
Gangotri Glacier
2525
Yamuna
Yamunotri Glacier
1376
Chambal
Near Mhow
960
Ramganga
Garhwal district
596
Ghaghra
Near Gurla Mandhata peak South of Manasarovar
1080
Son
Amarkantak Plateau
780
Damodar
Chhotanagpur Plateau
541
Gandak
Tibet-Nepal border
425*
Kosi
Sikkim-Nepal-Tibet Himalaya
730*
The Brahmaputra System ▸ It is one of the largest river of the world. ▸ It is known as Tsangpo in Tibet, Dihang or Siang in Arunachal Pradesh, Brahmaputra in Assam and Jamuna in Bangladesh. ▸ Brahmaputra forms largest number of riverine islands. Majuli is the largest riverine island in the world. ▸ The combined stream of Ganga and Brahmaputra forms the biggest delta in the world, the Sundarbans, covering an area of 58752 sq km. Its major part is in Bangladesh. ▸ Brahmaputra is volume wise largest river of India, whereas lengthwise Ganga is the longest in India. Brahmaputra River System
Mahanadi
North foothills of Dandakarnaya
857 km
Seonath, Hasdeo, Ib, Mand, Tel, Ong and Jonk.
Godavari
Triambak plateau of North Sahyadri near Nashik
1465 (longest river of Peninsular India.
Penganga, Wardha, Wainganga Indravati, Sabari, Manjira.
Krishna
North of Mahabaleshwar in the Western ghat
1400 km
Bhima, Tungabhadra, Ghat Prabha, Malaprabha, Musi and Koyna.
Cauveri
Rise in Brahmgiri range in Western ghat
800 km
Herongi, Hemavati, Shimsa, Arkavati, Kabani, Bhavani and Amravati etc.
Peninsular river system can be divided in two groups: East Flowing Rivers (or Delta forming rivers) ▸ East flowing rivers form Delta. ▸ East flowing rivers fall in Bay of Bengal. East Flowing Rivers
Rivers
Source
Length
Tributaries
North foothills ofDandakarnaya
Triambak plateau of NorthSahyadri near Nashik
West Flowing Rivers (or Estuaries forming rivers) ▸ West flowing rivers do not form delta. ▸ West flowing rivers fall in Arabian Sea. West Flowing Rivers
Sabarmati
Mewar in Aravalli range
371 km
It falls into Gulf of Khambat and its tributaries are Hathmati, Sedhi, Wakul.
Mahi
Rises from Vindhyan range
583 km
Flows in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Narmada (largest West flowing peninsular river system)
Amarkantak plateau
1312 km
Tributaries : Hiran, Tawa, Banjar, Shar, Shakkar and Burhner. It flows into Gulf of Khambat. It flowes through, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat. Famous waterfalls Dhuandhar and Kapildhara are located on this river.
Tapi
Rises near Multai on the Satpura range
724 km
Also known as Twin or handmaid of Narmada Tributaries Purna, Betul, Arunavati, Ganjal etc.
Luni
Rises from Aravalis
495 km
Also called salt river. It is finally lost in the marshy grounds at the head of the Rann of Kachchh.
Difference Between Delta and Estuary
It is the triangular deposition of alluvium at the mouth of river at its fall into the sea.
It is the funnel shaped mouth of river. High tidal actions form an estuary.
Excess deposition of silt and soil forms a delta.
Tidal waves drudge the slit out and an estuary is formed.
It is more fertile land.
It is useful for navigation.
Differences Between Himalayan River System and Peninsular System
They have large basins and catchment areas.
They have small basins and catchment areas.
They are the example of antecedent drainage.
They are the example of consequent drainage.
They are perennial in nature, i.e. the water flows throughout the year.
They are seasonal in nature and receive water only from rainfall.
These rivers are still in their youthful stage.
These rivers have already reached their maturity stage.
These rivers form meanders.
Little scope for meander formation.
Important Waterfalls of India
Waterfall
Height (km)
River
State
Kunchikal
455
Varani
Karnataka
Jog/Gersoppa
260
Sharavati
Rakim Kund
168
Gaighat
Bihar
Chachai
127
Bihad
Madhya Pradesh
Keoti
98
Sivasamudram
90
Important Indian Towns on Rivers
Town
Jamshedpur
Subarnarekha
Ahmedabad
Delhi
Patna
Kanpur
Kota
Surat
Jabalpur
Narmada
Ferozpur
Panji
Mandavi
Allahabad
At the confluence of theGanga and Yamuna
Ujjain
Kshipra
Varanasi
Guwahati
Brahmaputra
Haridwar
Musi
Badrinath
Alaknanda
Kolkata
Hooghly
Ludhiana Srinagar
Sutlej Jhelum
Ayodhya
Saryu
Lucknow
Gomti
Cuttack
Important River Projects and their Beneficiary States
Project
Purpose
Beneficiary States
Bhakra Nangal Project
Power and irrigation
Punjab, Himachal Pradesh,Haryana and Rajasthan
Damodar Valley
Power, irrigation and flood control
Jharkhand and West Bengal
Hirakud
Odisha
Tungabhadra Project
Tungabhadra
Andhra Pradesh andKarnataka
Nagarjunasagar Project
Andhra Pradesh, Telangana
Gandak River Project
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Nepal (joint venture of India and Nepal)
Kosi Project
Flood control, Power and irrigation
Bihar and Nepal
Farakka Project
Ganga,Bhagirathi
Power, irrigation, avoid accumulation of slit to improve navigation
Beas Project
Beas
Irrigation and power
Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh
Indira Gandhi CanalProject (Rajasthan CanalProject)
Sutlej, Beas and Ravi
Irrigation
Rajasthan, Punjab andHaryana
Chambal Project
Madhya Pradesh andRajasthan
Kakrapara Project
Gujarat
Ukai Project
Tawa Project
Tawa(Narmada)
Poochampad Project
Telangana
Malaprabha Project
Malaprabha
Durgapur Barrage
Irrigation and navigation
Karnataka, West Bengal andJharkhand
Mahanadi Delta Project
Iddukki Project
Periyar
Hydroelectricity
Ramganga MultipurposeProject
Chuisot stream near Kalagarh
Matatilla Project
Betwa
Multipurpose power and irrigation
Uttar Pradesh and MadhyaPradesh
Tehri Dam Project
Bhilangana,Bhagirathi
Rihand Scheme
Rihand
Uttar Pradesh
Kundah Project
Kundah
Hydroelectricity and irrigation
Mandi Project
Shivasamudram Project
Tata Hydel scheme
Bhima
Maharashtra
Mahi Project
Thein Project
Ravi
Punjab
▸ India has tropical monsoon type of climate. It is greatly influenced by the presence of Himalayas in the North as they block the cold masses from Central Asia. It is because of Himalayas that the monsoon shed their water in India. ▸ The Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N) divide India into two almost equal climatic zones, namely, the Northern zone (sub-tropic) and the Southern zone. (tropic). ▸ The sub-tropical climate of the Northern zone gives it cold winter seasons and hot summer seasons. ▸ The Southern tropical climate zone is warmer than the North and does not have a clear cut winter season. The Southern zone has the midday Sun almost vertically overhead at least twice every year and the Northern zone does not have the midday Sun vertically overhead during any part of the year.
The factors influencing the climate of India are as follows: ▸ Location and Latitudinal extent The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country. The region to the South of Tropic of Cancer experiences tropical climate, whereas the region to the North of the Tropic of Cancer experiences warm temperate climate. ▸ Distance from Sea The areas near to the sea experience maritime climate, whereas the areas away from the sea experience continental climate. ▸ The Northern Mountain Range The Northern Himalayan range protects India from the bitterly cold and dry winds of Central Asia during winter. Moreover, it acts as a physical barrier for the rain bearing South-West monsoon. ▸ Physiography The physiography has great impact on the major elements of climate such as temperature, atmospheric pressure, direction of wind and amount of rainfall. ▸ MonsoonWind It is the most dominating factor of Indian climate. The South-West summer monsoon from the Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal bring rainfall to the entire country. Besides the North-East winter monsoon travelling from land to sea causes rainfall along the Coromandel coast after acquiring moisture from the Bay of Bengal. Western Disturbances These are the depressions generated over the Mediterranean sea and enter India after crossing over Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan under the influence of Westerly jet stream. After reaching India, they move Eastwards, causing light rain in the Indo-Gangetic plains and snowfall in Himalayan belt. ▸ Upper Air Circulation The upper air circulation of India is dominated by a westerly flow. An important component of this flow is the Jet stream. The Western cyclonic disturbances experienced in North and North Western parts of the country are brought in by this Westerly flow. ▸ Tropical Cyclones The tropical cyclones generated in Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal during the South-West monsoon and the retreating monsoon seasons influence the weather conditions of the Peninsular India. ▸ El Nino and La Nina El Nino is a narrow warm current, which occasionally appears off the coast of Peru in December by temporarily replacing the cold Peru current. ▸ The warming of tropical Pacific waters affect the global pattern of pressure and wind systems including the monsoon winds in the Indian ocean. La Nina is the reverse of El-Nino. It is a harbinger of heavy monsoon showers in India. ▸ Southern Oscillation Whenever the surface level pressure is high over the Indian ocean, there is low pressure over the Pacific ocean and vice versa. This inter-relation of high and low pressure over the Pacific and the Indian ocean is called Southern Oscillation.
▸ Indian climate is characterised by distinct seasonality. Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has recognised the following four distinct seasons: (i) The cold seasons or winter season. (ii) The hot weather season or summer season. (iii) The South-West monsoon season or rainy season. (iv) The season of the retreating monsoon or cool season. Seasons and their Climatic Features
Winter Season
November to March
Cause rainfall in subHimalayan belt by Western disturbances
Clear sky, low temperature and humidity high range of temperature
Summer Season (Pre-monsoon)
March to June
Only 1% rainfall of total Indian rainfall mostly by storms by convective current
Dry season, high temperature and low humidity
Rainy Season
June to September
Rainfall through South-West monsoon
High heat, high humidity, extensive cloud and several spells of moderate to heavy rainfall are the characteristics
Cool Season
Mid September to November
Retreating monsoon causes rainfall in Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of Andhra Pradesh and Kerala
No cloud, severe and devastating tropical cyclone, clear sky
Local Storms in India
Norwester Kalbaisakhi
It is a spring storm showers and causes rainfall in Assam and West Bengal.
Mango Shower
Thunderstorm causing rainfall in Southern plateau helps in mango ripening.
Cherry Blossoms
Thunderstorm causing rainfall in Karnataka helps in flowering of coffee.
Kalbaisakhis
Storms in West Bengal during summer due to the strong convective movement.
Trewartha's Classification ▸ Dr Trewartha's scheme has been most satifactory of all classifications of the Indian climatic regions. He presented a modified form of Koppen's classification. ▸ Dr Trewartha's classification divides India into four major regions of the A, B, C and H types. The A type refers to tropical rainy climate, where high temperatures are consistent. The B type stands for a dry climate with high temperatures, but little rainfall. The C type indicates a region with dry winters, where low temperatures range between 0°C and 18°C. The H type indicates a mountain climate. The A, B, and C types are further sub-divided.
India can be divided into the following regions depending upon the annual average rainfall received by these regions Climatic Regions of India
Tropical Rain Forests Climate (Am)
Western Ghats, West Coastal Plains, Parts of Assam and Tripura.
High temperature throughout the year, heavy seasonal rainfall, annual rainfall 200 cm (May to November).
Tropical Savanna Climate (Aw)
Most of Peninsular region (except leeward side of Western Ghats).
Dry winters, annual rainfall varies from 76 cm to 150 cm.
Tropical Semi-Arid Steppe Climate (Bs)
Rainshadow belt running Southward from Central Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu
Low rainfall varies from 38 cm to 80 cm and temperature from 20° to 30°C.
Tropical and Sub-tropical Steppes Climate (Bsh)
Punjab, Haryana, and Kachchh region.
Temperature varies from 12°-35°C
Tropical Desert Climate (Bwh)
Western parts of Barmer, Jaisalmer and Bikaner districts of Rajasthan and parts of Kachchh.
Scanty rainfall (mostly in form of cloud burst), high temperature
Humid Sub- tropical Climate with dry Winters (Caw)
South of Himalayas.
Mild winters and extremely hot summers
Mountain Climate (H)
Mountainous region (above 6000 m or more).
Rainfall varies from 63.5 cm to 254 cm. (Mostly during South-West Monsoon).
Distribution of Rainfall
Areas of Very High Rainfall (above 200 cm)
Areas of High Rainfall (100-200 cm)
Areas of Low Rainfall (50-100 cm)
Areas of Very Low Rainfall (below 50 cm)
It includes almost whole of Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, parts of Manipur, West Bengal and the Western Coast from Thiruvananthapuram to Mumbai.
It includes Eastern slopes of Western Ghats, major parts of Northern Plain, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
It includes large parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Western Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Eastern Rajasthan etc.
It Include arid and semi-arid area and include large areas of Western Rajasthan, Kachchh and most of the region of Ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir).
According to state records, the forest area covers 23.28% of the total land area of the country. Indian State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2017 As per the report, it has been revealed that total forest and tree cover in India has increased to over 8,02,088 sq km (One Percent increase from 2015). Other key facts of the report are as follows : ▸ The total forest and tree cover in India is 24.39% of total geographical area of the country. ▸ Mizoram has the highest forest cover in terms of percentage geographical area i.e. 86.27%. ▸ Madhya Pradesh has the maximum forest cover i.e. 77,414 sq km.
Forest in India
Forest Type
Distribution
Climatic Conditions
Characteristics
Species
Tropical Evergreen Forests
Rainy slopes of Western Ghats. NE India except Arunachal Pradesh. Eastern part of West Bengal and Odisha.Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Rainfall > 200 cmRelative Humidity > 70% Average temperature is about 24° C.Hot and Humid climate.
■ Height of trees is 40 to 60 m.■ Leaves are dark green and broad.
Mahogany, Mahua, Bamboo, Cones, Ironwood, Kadam, Irul, Jamun, Hopea, Rubber tree, Toon, Telsur etc.
Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests
Eastern parts of Sahyadris (Western Ghats).North-Eastern part of Peninsula. Middle and lower Ganga valley.Foothills of Himalayas in Bhabar and Tarai regions.These cover about 20% India's forest area
100 to 200 cm rainfall per annum.Moderate temperature.
■ 30 to 40 m high trees.■ Due to deficiency of water, they shed their leaves in dry season (onset of summer).
Sal, Teak, Arjun, Mulberry,Kusum, Sandalwood, Siris, Haldi, Khair, Mango, Banyan tree etc.
Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests
Large parts of Maharashtra, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.Parts of Punjab, Haryana and Eastern parts of Rajasthan.Northern and Western parts of Madhya Pradesh.Tamil Nadu.Southern parts of Uttar Pradesh.
50 to 100 cm rainfall. Moderate humidity.
■ 6 to 15 m high.■ Roots are thick and long.
Teak, Sal, Bamboo, Mango, Acacia, Neem, Shisham etc.
Dry Forests or Arid Forests
Rajasthan and adjoining areas of Haryana, Gujarat and Punjab. Rainshadow areas of Peninsular India.
Low rainfall (less than 50 cm per annum).Relative humidity is less.
■ Thorny vegetation.■ Roots are very long.■ Leaves are small.
Cactus, Thorny Bushes, Kikar, Babool, Date Palm, Acacia, Khair, Euphorbias etc.
Mountainous or Himalayan Forests
In Himalayan region
Due to increase of altitude the temperature decreases hence Himalayan forests contain all the varieties of world except in Easternequatorial forest
■ Each vegetation belt Sal, Teak, Chir, Deodar, Oak,
Sal, Teak, Chir, Deodar, Oak, Olive, Chestnut, Conifers, Spruce and Lirch etc.
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has divided Indian soils into eight major groups.
Type of Soils
States where Found/Occurrence
Compositions
Crops Grow
■ Alluvial
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh Bihar, Jharkhand
Rich in potash and lime, but deficient in nitrogen and phosphoric acid.
Large variety of Rabi and Kharif crops such as wheat, rice, sugarcane, cotton and jute.
■ Black (or Regur soil)
Deccan Plateau, Valleys of Krishna and Godavari, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu
Rich in iron, lime, aluminium, magnesium, calcium, but lacks in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus.
Cotton, sugarcane, jowar, tobacco, wheat, rice,
■ Red
Eastern parts of Deccan Plateau, Tamil Nadu, Goa, Odisha and Meghalaya
Rich in iron and potash, but deficient in lime, nitrogen phosphorus and humus.
Wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane and pulses.
■ Laterite
Summits of Eastern and Western Ghats, Assam hills, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, West Bengal and Odisha
Rich in iron but poor in silica, lime, phosphorus, potash and humus.
Tea, coffee, rubber, cashew and millets.
■ Desert
West and North-West India, Rajasthan, North Gujarat and Southern Punjab.
Rich in soluble salts, but deficient in organic matter.
Generally, unsuitable for cultivation, but with irrigation useful for cultivation of drought-resistant lime, millets, barley, cotton, maize and pulses.
■ Mountain
Hills of Jammu and Kashmir Uttarakhand and Assam Hills
Rich in iron and humus, but deficient in lime.
with fertilizers, tea, fruits and medicinal plants can be grown.
■ Saline and Alkaline
Drier parts of Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Maharashtra
Many salts such as sodium, magnesium and calcium.
Unfit for agriculture.
■ Peaty and Marshy
Kerala, coastal regions of Odisha, Tamil Nadu and Sundarbans of West Bengal
Contain large amount of soluble salts and organic matter, but lack in potash and phosphates.
Useful for rice and jute cultivation.
India is essentially an agricultural land. Two-thirds of its population still lives on agriculture. Agriculture is a primary activity which includes farming, animal rearing and fishing. There are three crop seasons in India (i) Kharif Sown in June/July, harvested in September/October. e.g. rice, jowar, bajra, ragi, maize, cotton and jute. (ii) Rabi Sown in October/December, harvested in April/May e.g. wheat, barley, peas, rapeseed, mustard, grains. (iii) Zaid They are raised between April/June e.g. melon, watermelon, cuccumber, toris, leafy and other vegetables.
Shifting Agriculture ▸ It is practised by the tribal groups in the forest areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and Andhra Pradesh. Various Names of Shifting Agriculture
States
Names of Shifting Cultivation
Assam
Jhum
Ponam
Andhra Pradesh and Odisha
Podu
Beewar, Mashan, Penda and Beera
INDIA SOILS ▸ In this type of agriculture, a piece of forest land is cleared mainly by tribal people by felling and burning of trees and crops are grown. ▸ Dry paddy, buck wheat, maize, smallmillets, tobacco and sugarcane are the main crops grown under this type of agriculture. Intensive Farming ▸ This is a system of farming, in which the cultivator uses large amount of labour and capital on a relatively small area. ▸ In regions, where the size of population is big, but land is less, this type of farming is done. ▸ Agriculture is done with the help of manual labour. Extensive Farming ▸ This is a system of farming, in which the cultivator uses a limited amount of labour and capital on a relatively large area. ▸ This type of agriculture is practised in regions, where population size is small and land is enough. ▸ Agricultural is done with the help of machines.
It is the phrase generally used to describe the spectacular increase that took place during 1968 and is continuing in the production of foodgrains in India. The components of Green Revolution are as follows: ▸ High Yield Variety Seeds ▸ Irrigation ▸ Use of Fertilizers ▸ Use of Insecticide and Pesticide ▸ Command Area Development ▸ Consolidation of Holdings ▸ Land Reforms ▸ Supply of Agricultural Credit ▸ Rural Electrification ▸ Rural Roads and Marketing ▸ Farm Mechanisation ▸ Agricultural Universities Impact of Green Revolution Positive Impact ▸ Increase in agricultural production ▸ Reduction of the import of foodgrains ▸ Capitalistic farming ▸ Industrial growth ▸ Rural employment Negative Impact ▸ Inter-crop imbalance ▸ Environmental impacts ▸ Increase in regional imbalance ▸ Unemployment due to mechanisation ▸ Negligence of other crops Major Crops and Producing States
Cereals
Wheat
Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Madhya Pradesh
Rice
West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh
Gram
Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu
Barley
Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan
Bajra
Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan
Cash Crops
Sugarcane
Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra
Poppy
Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh
Oil Seeds
Coconut
Kerala and Tamil Nadu
Linseed
Rajasthan Madhya Pradesh and Haryana
Groundnut Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu Rape seed and Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana Mustard Sesame Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan Sunflower Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra Karnataka
Fibre Crops
Cotton
Maharashtra and Gujarat
Jute
West Bengal and Bihar
Silk
Karnataka and Kerala
Hemp
Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh
Plantations
Coffee
Rubber
Kerala and Karnataka
Tea
Assam and Kerala
Tobacco
Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh
Spices
Pepper
Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
Cashewnuts
Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh
Ginger
Kerala and Uttar Pradesh
Turmeric
Growing Conditions of Some Important Crops
Crop
Temperature
Rainfall
Soil
Not above 25°C
150-300 cm
Clay or Loamy, Alluvial
10°–15°C (Winter), 21°–26°C (Summer)
80 cm
Well-drained loams and clay loam
21°–30°C, but not below 20°C, 200 frost free days
50-75 cm
Black soil (Regur) alluvial or laterite soils
32°–38°C
100-150 cm
Any type of soil that can retain moisture
Jowar
Not below 16°C
<100 cm
Variety of soils including clayey and sandy
24°–35°C
Rainfall of 150 cm, with 90% humidity
Light sandy or clayey loams
13°–32°C
125-375 cm, grown on hill slopes
Well drained, deep friable loams or forest soils rich in organic matter
23°–28°C
150-200 cm
Rich well-drained friable loams containing good amount of vegetable mould
25°–30°C
40-50 cm
Sandy loams, red and black soils
Ragi
20°–30°C
50-100 cm
Red, sandy loams and light black
Pulses
20°–35°C
Dry, light soil
25°–35°C
Rich well-drained soils
Tabacco
15°C – 35°C
Well-drained loamy soil, alluvial or black soils
Three types of minerals are as follows: (i) Metallic Iron-ore, copper, aluminium, tin, lead, gold and silver. (ii) Non-Metallic Coal, mica, manganese, petroleum and sulphur. (iii) Radioactive Uranium and thorium. Metallic Mineral Mines
Iron
Kemmangundi, Sandur and Hospet(Karnataka) Barbil-Koira (Odisha), Bailadila and Dalli-Rajhara (Chhattisgarh), North Goa
Manganese
Found in Karnataka, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra
Chromite
Found in Odisha, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh
Copper
Malanjkhand Belt (Balaghat ,Madhya Pradesh), Khetri-Singhana Belt (Jhunjhun), Singhbhum (Jharkhand)
Bauxite
Found in Odisha, Gujarat , Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh
Gold
Kolar and Hutti (Karnataka), Ramgiri in Anantapur (Andhra Pradesh)
Non-Metallic Mineral Mines
Limestone
Found in Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh
Dolomite
About 90% of the dolomite is found in Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Gujarat, Karnataka , West Bengal
Asbestos
Rajasthan , Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
Gypsum
Found in Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir
Graphite
Occurs in Kalahandi, Bolangir (Odisha) and Bhagalpur (Bihar)
Atomic Mineral Mines
Uranium
Jadugoda (Jharkhand) , Gaya (Bihar), Saharanpur (Uttar Pradesh), Monazite sands of Kerala coast. Found as by-product in copper mines of Udaipur
Thorium
Derived from Monazite sand. Found in Kerala, Jharkhand , Bihar, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan
Lithium
Found in Lepidolite and Spodumene. Lepidolite is found in Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, Baster region
Zirconium
Found along Kerala coast and alluvial rocks of Ranchi and Hazaribagh
Beryllium
Occurs in Nellore district, Andhra Pradesh, Sikkim, Jammu and Kashmir
Industries in India
Cotton Textile Industry
The first modern Cotton textile mill was established in Bombay in 1854 by local Parsi entrepreneurs with the name of Bombay spinning and weaving comapny. Mumbai is called Cottonopolis of India. Ahmedabad is called Manchester of India. Coimbatore is called Manchester of South India. Kanpur is called Manchester of Uttar Pradesh. Distribution Maharashtra (Mumbai, Solapur, Pune, Kolhapur, Satara, Wardha, Aurangabad and Amravati), Gujarat (Ahmedabad, Vadodra, Rajkot, Surat, Bhavnagar, Porbandar, Maurvi and Viramgam), Tamil Nadu (Chennai, Tirunelveli, Madurai, Tuticorin, Salem, Virudhnagar and Pollachi), Karnataka (Bengaluru, Belgaum, Mangalore, Chitradurga, Gulbaraga and Mysore), Uttar Pradesh (Kanpur, Etawah, Modinagar, Moradabad, Bareilly, Agra, Meerut and Varanasi), Madhya Pradesh (Indore, Gwalior, Ujjain, Bhopal), Rajasthan (Kota, Jaipur, Sriganganagar, Bhilwara and Udaipur).
Woollen Textile Industry
The first Woollen textiles mill was set-up in 1876 at Kanpur. Jammu and Kashmir is a large producer of handloom woollen products. Distribution Punjab (Dhariwal, Amritsar, Ludhiana, Ferozpur), Maharashtra (Mumbai), Uttar Pradesh (Kanpur, Mirzapur, Agra, Tanakpur).
Jute Textile Industry
First modern Jute mill was set-up in 1855 at Rishra near Kolkata. India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute good production, whereas it is second largest exporter of jute goods after Bangladesh. Distribution West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Odisha, Tripura and Chhattisgarh.
Silk Textile Industry
India is the second largest prouducer of natural silk, after China and is the only country producing all four varieties or natural silk viz Mulberry, Tasar, Eri and Muga of which Golden yellow Muga silk is unique in India. Distribution Karnataka is the leading producer followed by West Bengal, Bihar etc.
Rubber Industry
The first factory of synthetic rubber was set-up at Bareilly. Distribution Bareilly (Uttar Pradesh), Baroda (Gujarat) Synthetic Rubber Units-Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Amritsar-Reclained Rubber Units.
Tea Industry
Tea cultivation in India was first started in the mid-19th century in Darjeeling, Assam and Nilgiris. Nearly 98% of the tea production comes from Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, while the rest of it comes from Karnataka, Terai regions of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur and Tripura.
Paper Industry
The first Paper mill in the country was set-up at Serampore (Bengal) in 1832, which failed. In 1870, a fresh venture was started at Ballygunj near Calcutta. Raw material : Bamboo (70%), Salai wood (12%), Sabai (9%), Bagasses (4%) and Waste paper and Rags (5%). Distribution Madhya Pradesh (Nepanagar), Hindustan Paper Corporation, Vellore, Mysore Paper mill, Bhadravati, Maharashtra, (Mumbai, Pune, Ballarpur and Kamptee produce Paper and Vikhroli), Andhra Pradesh (Rajahmundry and Sirpur), Madhya Pradesh (Indore, Bhopal and Shahdol), Karnataka.
Iron and Steel
Distribution Bhadrawati (Karnataka), Jamshedpur (Jharkhand), Durgapur, Burnpur (West Bengal), Bokaro (Jharkhand), Rourkela (Odisha), Bhilai (Chhattisgarh), Salem (Tamil Nadu) and Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh).
Ship
Distribution Cochin Shipyard , Mumbai (Mazgaon Dock), Hindustan Shipyard at Visakhapatnam and Kolkata (Garden Reach workshop). Mazgaon dock at Mumbai builts Vessels for Indian Navy.
Aircraft Industry
Distribution Hindustan Aeronautics India Limited was formed by merging two aricraft factories at Bengaluru and Kanpur. Four other factories are at Nashik, Lucknow, Koraput (Odisha) and Hyderabad.
Fertilizer Industry
The Fertilizer Corporation of India (FCI) was set-up in 1961. National Fertilizer Limited (NFL) was set-up in 1974. Distribution Sindri (Bihar), Nangal, Gorakhpur (Uttar Pradesh), Durgapur, Namrup, Cochin, Rourkela, Neyveli, Varanasi, Vadodra, Kanpur, Visakhapatnam and Kota.
Heavy Machinery
Distribution Durgapur, Mumbai, Ranchi, Visakhapatnam, Tiruchirapalli and Naini.
Machine Tool Industry
It forms the basis for the manufacturing of industrial, defence equipments, automobiles, railway engines and electrical machinery. Distribution Hyderabad, Bengaluru, Pinjore (Haryana), Kalamassery (Kerala), Secunderabad, Ajmer and Srinagar.
Heavy Electrical Equipments
Distribution Bengaluru, Bhopal, Jammu, Tiruchirapalli, Ramchandrapuram (Hyderabad) and Jagdishpur (Uttar Pradesh).
Photo Films Industry
The Hindustan Photo Films Manufacturing Company at Udagamandalam (Tamil Nadu) is the only factory in the public sector, producing photo paper and films.
Glass Industry
Distribution Uttar Pradesh (Firozabad, Balijoi, Hathras, Naini, Secunderabad, Maharashtra (Mumbai, Telogaon, Pune Sitarampur), Tamil Nadu (Tiruvottiyur) and Karnataka (Belgaum, Bengaluru).
▸ India is a fast growing country and therefore the demand for energy is also continuously growing. India is exploiting almost all the sources of energy such as hydroelectricity, thermal energy, nuclear energy, solar energy and wind energy etc. ▸ Power development commenced in India with the commissioning of electricity supply in Darjeeling during 1897, followed by a hydropower station at Sivasamudram in Karnataka during 1902. ▸ Himachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim and Uttarakhand are largely dependent upon hydroelectricity. ▸ National Hydro Power Corporation (NHPC) was set-up in 1975, under public sector for the generation of hydropower in India. ▸ National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) was set-up in 1975, for generation of thermal energy. NTPC has 18 coal based super thermal power projects and 7 gas/liquid based combined cycle projects. ▸ Atomic Energy Institute at Trombay was set-up in 1954 and renamed as Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) in 1967. ▸ Heavy Water Plants are at Vadodra, Tuticorin, Kota, Thal, Hazira and Manuguru. The first heavy water plant was set-up in Nangal in 1962. ▸ The Renewable Energy Programme started with the establishment of the Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources in 1982. Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency was set-up in 1987. In 1992; DNES was converted into Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources. Renewable Energy Plants
Types ofEnergy
Plants
Wind Energy
Muppandal
Perungudi
Kayattar
Satara
Jogimati
Lamba, Mandvi
Geothermal
Manikaran
Himachal
Energy
Pradesh
Puga Valley
Jammu andKashmir
Tattapani
Chhattisgarh
Tidal Energy
Gulf ofKhambat
Gulf ofKachchh
Sundarban
Wave Energy
Vizhinjam
Solar Energy
Tirupati
Andhra Pradesh
The Major Atomic Power Stations
Tarapur
Rawatbhata
Rajasthan
Kalpakkam
Narora
Kakrapara
Kaiga
Kudankulam
Banswara
Ultra Mega Power Plants (UMPP)
Sasan
4000
Reliance
Mundra
Tata
Krishnapatnam
Girye
NA
Tadri
Major Thermal Plants
Names of the Plant
Haryana
Faridabad, Panipat
Bhatinda, Ropar
Badarpur, Indraprastha
Obra, Panki,Singrauli
Ukai, Sikka, Ahmedabad,Sabarmati
MadhyaPradesh
Satpura, Amarkantak,Pench
Korba, Bhilai
Nashik, Uran , Chandrapur,Trombay, Dabhol
AndhraPradeshTelangana
Nellore, VijayawadaRamagundam,Kothagudam
Ennore, Tuticorin, Neyveli
Barauni
Jharkhand
Bokaro
Talcher, Rourkela
Kolkata, Titagarh, Durgapur
Kamrup, Bongaigaon
Pampore
Tripura
Rokhia
▸ India has the second largest railway network in Asia and the fourth largest in the World after the USA, Russia and China. The Indian railway operate in three different gauges Gauge Routes (km)
Broad Gauges (l. 676 m)
46807
Meter Gauges (I. 000 m)
13290
Narrow Gauges (0.761 and 0.610 m)
3124
▸ It is the largest public sector undertaking of the country and it is the world's second largest railway network under single management. ▸ The first Indian railway line in India was operated for public traffic in 1853 between Bombay and Thane over a distance of 34 km. ▸ The second train ran between Howrah and Hooghly in 1854. ▸ The first electric train in India was 'Deccan Queen', it was introduced in 1929 between Bombay and Poona. ▸ The headquarters of Indian railway is in New Delhi. ▸ The fastest train in India is Gatiman Express whose maximum speed is 160 km/hr. it runs between Hazrat Nizamuddin to Agra Cantt. Railway Zones
Central Railway
Mumbai
Eastern Railway
Northern Railway
New Delhi
North-Eastern Railway
Gorakhpur
North-East Frontier Railway
Malegaon
Southern Railway
Chennai
South Central Railway
Secundrabad
South-Eastern Railway
Western Railway
Mumbai (Church Gate)
East Central Railway
Hajipur
East Coast Railway
Bhubaneshwar
North Central Railway
North-Western Railway
Jaipur
South-East Central Railway
Bilaspur
South-West Railway
Hubli
West Central Railway
Kolkata Metro
▸ Indian railways has the second biggest electrified system in the world after Russia. ▸ The total route covered is approximately 63000 km. ▸ The second longest train route is of 'Himsagar Express' from Jammu Tawi to Kanyakumari. It covers a distance of 3726 km and passes through ten states. ▸ The first metro rail was introduced in Calcutta on 24th October, 1984. The two stations connected were Dumdum and Belgachhla. ▸ The oldest steam engine 'Fairy Queen' still runs on rail. ▸ Uttar Pradesh has largest railway network in India. ▸ Mumbai CST is busiest railway junction of India. ▸ Railway track electrification was introduced in early 1920s. The first two sections from Victoria Terminus to Kurla and from Victoria Terminus to Bandra were electrified. About 26% of the rail lines have been electrified. Indian Railways Recognised by UNESCO
Darjeeling Himalayan Railways (1999)
Narrow gauge railway from Siliguri to Darjeeling in the State of West Bengal
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (2004)
It was opened in 1887, in the time to celebrate Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee.
Nilgiri Mountain Railways (2005)
It connects the town of Mettupalayam with the hill station of Udagamandalam in the Nilgiri hills.
Kalka-Shimla Railways (2008)
Narrow Gauge railway in North-West India travelling along a most mountainous route from Kalka to Shimla.
Committees Constituted for Rail Security
Shahnawaz Committee
1954
Kunzrou Committee
1962
Wahchoo Committee
Sikri Committee
Vivek Express ▸ It has the longest train route in India connecting Dibrugarh and Kanyakumari. ▸ It is 8th longest in the world. ▸ It was started to commemorate the 150th birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda. ▸ It is a weekly train with a total distance of 4227 km. ▸ Previously Himsagar Express was the longest express. Konkan Railways ▸ It runs from Mangalore to Roha (40 km South of Mumbai). ▸ The network involves 3 states such as Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka. ▸ It has the fastest track in India and has a total length of 738 km. ▸ Almost 10% of the line passes through tunnels. RailwayManufacturing Units ▸ Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW), Chittaranjan : steam locomotives and electric locomotives. ▸ Diesel Locomotive Works (DLW), Varanasi : Diesel locomotives. ▸ Wheel Axle Plant (WAP), Bengaluru: Wheel Axle plant ▸ Diesel Component Works (DCW), Patiala : Diesel components and parts. ▸ Rail Coach Factory (RCF), Kapurthala, Punjab : rail coaches. ▸ Integral Coach Factory (ICF), Chennai : Coaching stock. ▸ Bharat EarthMovers Ltd. Bengaluru : Rail coaches for Delhi Metro Rail Corporation. ▸ Durgapur and Yelahanka : Wheel Axle plant. ▸ Tatanagar;Metre gauge steamlocomotives. ▸ Bhilai : Rail and Sleeper cars. ▸ Perambur : Rail coaches. Diamond Quadrilateral Project The new government at centre has promised to build the Diamond Quadrilateral Project which would connect via high-speed rail the cities of Chennai, Mumbai, Kolkata and Delhi. Bullet Train in India Railway Ministry in his white paper 'Vision 2020' envisages the implementation of regional high speed rail projects to provide services at 250-350 km/h. Six corridors have been identified for technical studies ▸ Delhi-Chandigarh-Amritsar ▸ Pune-Mumbai-Ahmedabad ▸ Hyderabad-Vijayawada-Chennai ▸ Howrah-Haldia ▸ Chennai-Bengaluru-Thiruvananthapuram ▸ Delhi-Agra-Lucknow-Varanasi-Patna Metro Rail
Calcutta
1984
28.4
2002
213
Bengaluru (Namma)
2011
114
Gurgaon
2013
5.1
35.1
45.1
71.6
Navi Mumbai
2016
106.4
Kochi
25.6
35
Mono Rail The Mumbai Mono Rail which started its services in 2014 is the first operational Mono Rail in India. Apart fromMumbai, Chennai and Bengaluru are also has plan for mono rail.
In 1943, Nagpur Plan classified the roads into four categories: (i) National Highways (ii) State Highways (iii) District Roads (iv) Village Roads ▸ Indian road network is the third largest in the world. ▸ India has a road network of over 4.42 million km. ▸ National highways are constructed and maintained by Central Public Works Department (CPWD). The five Express Highways of India are as follow: (i) Western Express Way (ii) Eastern Express Way (iii) Highway between Kolkata and Dum Dum Airport (iv) Highway between Sukinda mines and Paradip Port (v) Express Highway between Durgapur and Kolkata National Highways
NH1
New Delhi-Ambala- Jalandhar-Amritsar-Indo-Pak Border
NH2
Delhi-Mathura-Agra-Kanpur Allahabad-Varanasi-Kolkata
NH3
Agra-Gwalior-Nashik -Mumbai
NH4
Thane -Chennai (via Pune -Belgam)
NH5
Kolkata-Chennai
NH6
Kolkata-Dhule
NH7
Varanasi-Kanyakumari
NH8
Delhi-Mumbai (via Jaipur- Baroda-Ahmedabad)
NH9
Pune- Machilipatnam
NH10
Delhi- Fazilka
NH11
Jaipur – Bikaner
NH12
Jabalpur-Jaipur
NH24
Delhi-Lucknow
NH27
Allahabad-Mangawan
NH28
Barauni-Lucknow
NH29
Varanasi-Pharenda and terminating of Sunali
NH47A
Kundanoor-Willington Island in Kochi
▸ NH44 is the longest National Highway in India. ▸ NH5 and NH17 run along the Eastern and the Western coast respectively. ▸ NH15 represents the border road in Rajasthan desert. ▸ NH47A is the shortest highway in the India highway network. ▸ NH 548 and NH 118 are the shortest NH of India, each with the length of 5 km. NationalHighwayDevelopment Programme (NHDP) National Highway Development Programme consists of following projects: ▸ The Golden Quadrilateral connects: ▸ Delhi to Kolkata 1453 km (NH2) ▸ Delhi to Mumbai 1419 km (NH8, NH76 and NH79) ▸ Mumbai to Chennai 1290 km (NH4, NH7 and NH46) ▸ Chennai to Kolkata 1684 km (NH5, NH6 and NH60) Total length 5846 km, out of which maximum length is in Andhra Pradesh (1016 km) followed by Uttar Pradesh (753 km). 2. North-South and East-West Corridors (i) NS corridor connects Srinagar to Kanyakumari. (ii) EW corridor connects Porbandar (Gujarat) to Silchar (Assam). 3. To upgrade 12109 km of National Highway with 4 lanes on BOT basis. It will cover NHs after that phase 1 and 2. (i) NS and EW corridors cross each other at Jhansi (Uttar Pradesh). (ii) Total length of this project is 7300 km. (iii) Maximum length of corridors is in Tamil Nadu (856 km) followed by Uttar Pradesh (851 km).
▸ JRD Tata was the first person to take a solo flight from Mumbai to Karachi in 1931. ▸ In 1935, the 'Tata Air Lines' started its operation between Mumbai and Thiruvananthapuram and in 1937 between Mumbai and Delhi. ▸ In 1953, all the private airline companies were nationalised and Indian Airlines and Air India came into existence. ▸ Vayudoot Limited started in 1981 as a private air carrier and later on it merged with Indian Airlines. ▸ International Airports Authority of India and National Airports Authority were merged on 1995 to form Airports Authority of India. The Authority manages the Civil Aviation Training College at Allahabad and National Institute of Aviation Management and Research at Delhi. International Airports in India
1. Rajiv Gandhi International Airport
Hyderabad
2. Calicut International Airport
Calicut
3. Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport
4. Kempegowda Airport
Bengaluru
5. Goa (Dabolim) Airport in Dabolim City
Goa
6. Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport
7. Thiruvananthapuram International Airport
Thiruvananthapuram
8. Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport
9. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport
10. Indira Gandhi International Airport
11. Chennai International Airport
12. Shri Guru Ram Das Jee International Airport
Amritsar
13. Cochin International Airport
Kochi (Kerala)
14. Coimbatore International Airport
Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu)
15. Lal Bahadur Shastri Airport
Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh)
16. Chaudhary Charan Singh Airport
Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh)
17. Ambedkar Airport
Nagpur (Maharashtra)
18. Tiruchirapalli Airport
Tiruchirapalli
19. Jaipur Airport
20. Veer Savarkar International Airport
Port Blair
21. Srinagar International Airport
Srinagar (Jammu and Kashmir)
Major Waterways of India
NW1
Allahabad-Haldia (1620 km)
Along Ganga River
NW2
Sadiya- Dhubri (891 km)
Along Brahmaputra River
NW3
Kottapuram-Kollam (205 km)
Along Champakara and Udyogamandal Canal.
NW4
Bhadrachalam to Rajahmundry and Wazirabad to Vijaywada (1095 km)
Along Godavari and Krishna River
NW5
Mangalgarhi to Paradeep and Talcher to Dhamara (623 km)
Along Mahanadi and Brahmini River System
NW6
Lakhipur to Bhanga (121 km)
Along Barak River
▸ The Waterways Authority in India divides Indian ports into three categories, major, minor and intermediate ports. ▸ India has about 190 ports, with 13 major and the rest intermediate and minor. Eastern Coast Ports
Ports of Eastern Coast
Important Fact
Oldest port, India's riverine port having two dock system.
Paradip
It handles iron-ore and some amounts of coal and dry cargo.
All weather port having deep drafted berth, oil jetties, iron- ore terminals etc.
Visakhapatnam
Seaport and well known for its outstanding performance. It serves the Bhilai and Rourkela Steel Plant
Tuticorin
Artificial deep sea harbour, all weather port offer direct weekly container service to USA.
Ennore
First corporatised major port in India.
▸ Note there are 12 major parts in India. Western Coast Ports
Ports of Western Coast
It handles maximum traffic, natural harbour, it handles mostly petroleum and dry cargo.
Kandla
Tidal port and important traffic handled are crude oil, petroleum, edible oil, foodgrains.
Marmagao
It handles iron ore. It has a naval base.
New Mangalore
It is an all weather port.
Cochin
Major natural port in Willingdon Island.
Jawaharlal Nehru
It is called as Nhava Sheva.
▸ Largest container port of India is Jawaharlal Nehru (Nhava Sheva) port in Mumbai. The largest natural port is in Visakhapatnam. ▸ Kandla in Gujarat is a tidal port. It has been made into a free trade zone. ▸ New Mangalore port is also called the Gateway of Karnataka. ▸ Mumbai port is the busiest port of India.
Important Lakes of India
Name of Lake
Chilika Lake
It is a saline and lagoon lake (largest saline water lake of India).
Kolleru Lake
It is a freshwater lake.
Loktak Lake
ItisafreshwaterlakehavinginlanddrainageinManipur.
Lonar Lake
It is a meteorite crater lake in Buldhana area of Maharashtra. The water is highly charged with Sodium carbonates and Sodium chloride.
Pangong Lake
It is a salty lake.
Pulicat Lake
Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh border
It is a saline and lagoon lake.
Sambhar Lake
It is a shallow lake, which is saline, located near Jaipur.
Tsomarari Lake
VembanadLake
It is a lagoon lake.
Wular and Dal Lakes
Wular lake was created due to tectonic activities.
Major Tribes of India
Tribal Groups
Found in
Abors
North-East
Kol
Angami
Kolam
Apatanis
Kotas
Badagas
Kuki
Baigas
Lahaulas
Bakarwals
Lepchas
Bhils
Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan
Lushai
Bhotias
Murias
Bharia
Meenas
Birhors
Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand
Moplahs
Chang
Mundas
Chenchus
Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Odisha
Mishimi
Gaddis
Nagas
Galaong
Oraons
Jharkhand and Odisha
Garos
Assam and Meghalaya
Onges
Andaman and Nicobar
Gonds
Singpho
Gujjars
Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal
Santhals
West Bengal, Odisha
Jharkhand and Bihar
Irula
Sangtam
Jaintias
Meghalaya
Sema
Jarawa
Little Andaman
Sentinelese
Kanikar
Shompens
Katkari
Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh
Todas
Kharia
Jharkhand, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh
Uralis
Khond
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh,
Wancho
Khas
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim Warlis
Khasis
Warlis
Maharstra
Nicknames of Important Indian Places
Abode of the God
Prayag (Allahabad)
Blue Mountains
Nilgiri
Boston of India
City of Buildings
City of Castles
City of Festivals
Madurai
City of Lakes
Srinagar
City of Nawabs
City of Rallies
City of Seven Islands
City of Temples
City of Weavers
Panipat
Dakshin Ganga
Deccan Queen
Pune
Egg Bowl of Asia
Electronic City of India
Garden City of India
Garden of Spices of India
Gateway of India
Golden City
Famous Hill Stations
Coonoor
1860
Dalhousie
2035
Darjeeling
2135
Gangtok
1850
Gulmarg
2730
Kalimpong
1250
Kasauli
1895
Khandala
620
Kodaikanal
2120
Kullu Valley
1200
Lansdowne
Lonawala
Mahabaleshwar
1370
Manali
2050
Mandi
709
Mannar
1160
Mount Abu
1220
Mukteshwar
Mussoorie
2500
Nainital
1940
Ooty (Udagamandalam)
2290
Pahalgam
2200
Panchgani
Pachmarhi
1065
915
Ranikhet
1830
Shimla
2159
Indian Town Associated with Industries
Cotton Textiles
Agra
Leather, Marble, Carpets
Aligarh
Locks, Cutlery
Ankleshwar
Oil fields
Ambernath
Machine Tools
Woollen Clothes
Anand
Milk and its Products
Alwaye
Fertilizer, Monazite Factory
Ambala
Scientific Instruments
Steel Plant
Telephones, Aircrafts, Motors, Cotton Textiles, Toys
Batanagar
Shoes
Bareilly
Resin Industries, Match Factory
Bhilai
Chemical Fertilizer
Burnpur
Bhurkunda
Glass Industries
Bhagalpur
Silk Industries
Bhandara
Explosives
Bhadroves
Bongaigaon
Petroleum
Bhadoi
Carpets
Churk
Cement
Cyberabad
Electronics, Computers, Information Technology
Chitaranjan
Locomotive
Ship Building, Coconut Oil, Rubber
Coffee, Coconut
Coimbatore
Cotton Industries
Dhariwal
Durgapur
Steel
Digboi
Textiles, Electronic
Dalmianagar
Dindigul
Cigar, Tobacco
Firozabad
Bangle works
Guntur
Gwalior
Pottery, Tobacco
Gomia
Heavy Electricials
Hatia
Heavy Engineering Corporation
Haldia
Hazira
Artificial Rayon
Iron and Steel, Locomotives, Railway Coaches
Jalandhar
Surgical Goods and Sports Articles
Cloth, Printing, Brass
Jharia
Coal Mines
Bidi Industry
Jainakot
HMT Watch
Japla
Cotton and Woollen Mills, Leather, Sugar
Katni
Korba
Aluminium Factory, Thermal Plant
Koyna
Aluminium Factory
Koyali
Petro-Chemical Industries
Kolar
Gold Mining Center
Jute, Leather, Electric goods
Atomic Power Plant
Kanchipuram
Silk Clothes
Karnal
Dairy Product
Chemical Fertilizers, Famous Port
Khetri
Copper Industries
Ludhiana
Hosiery
Embroidery Work, Chicken Work
Leather, Cigarette, Integral Coach Factory
Cotton and Silk Weaving
Mirzapur
Carpet, Pottery, Brass Industries
Muradabad
Brassware, Cutlery
Mathura
Oil Refinery
Mysore
Sandalwood Oil, Silk Goods
Meerut
Publication Work, Sports Goods, Scissors Making
Cinema Industries, Cotton Textiles
Modinagar
Nylon thread
Moorie
Aluminium
Majhagaon
Ship Building
Nagpur
Cotton Mills, Oranges
Nepanagar
Newsprint
Security Printing Press
Neyveli
Lignite Industries
Capital Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh) Data of Formation 1st October, 1953 (Reorganised in June 2014 by creating Telangana as a separate state) State Symbols Animal Blackbuck Bird Indian Roller Tree Neem Neighbouring States/UTs Maharashtra, Odisha, Karnataka, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Sea: Bay of Bengal. ▸ Visakhapatnam is the major port in the state. ▸ Andhra Pradesh is India's eighth largest state by area and 10th largest by population. ▸ The Hyderabad Information Technology Engineering Consultancy City (HITEC City) is the largest information technology park in India. ▸ It is called the Rice Bowl of India and egg bowl of Asia. ▸ Andhra Pradesh has the second- longest coastline of 972 km among the state of India.
Capital Itanagar Date of Formation 20th February, 1987 State Symbols Animal Mithun Bird Great Hornbill Tree Hollong Flower Fox tail Orchid Neighbouring States Assam, Nagaland. Neighbouring Countries Bhutan, Myanmar, China ▸ It is the Easternmost State of India. ▸ Rajiv Gandhi University is the only university in the state. ▸ Agriculture is the main occupation of the People of Arunachal Pradesh and Jhum (shifting cultivation) is practised. ▸ Arunachal Pradesh is also known as land of the rising Sun in reference to its position as the Easternmost State of India.
Capital
Dispur
Date of Formation State Symbols
26th January, 1950
Animal
Indian one-horned Rhino
Bird
White-wing Wood Duck
Tree
Hollong
Flower
Fox-tail Orchid
▸ Assam contributes about 15% of the world's entire tea production. ▸ Assam is surrounded by six of the other seven sister states : Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya. These states are connected to the rest of India via a narrow strip in West Bengal called the Siliguri Corridor or Chicken's Neck.
Gaur
Sparrow
Peepal
Marigold
▸ After the separation of Jharkhand from Bihar, Bihar has become a mineral less state, as the mineral-rich belt has gone to Jharkhand. ▸ Bihar is the 12th largest state in terms of geographical size and 3rd largest by population. ▸ According to Census 2011, Bihar has lowest literacy rate (63.82%). ▸ Gautam Buddha attained Enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, a town located in the modern day district of Gaya in Bihar. ▸ Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th and the last Tirthankara of Jainism, was born in Vaishali around 6th century BC.
Capital Raipur Data of Formation 1st November, 2000 State Symbols Animal Wild Buffalo Bird Hill Myna Tree Sal Neighbouring States Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Telangana Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Jharkhand. ▸ 10th state in terms of area and 16th in terms of population. ▸ More than 80% of the population depends on agriculture. But, it is equally rich in mineral deposits. ▸ It is an important electrical power and steel producing state of India. ▸ Chhattisgarh is known for Kosa Silk and Lost Wax Art.
Capital Panaji Date of Formation 30th May, 1987 State Symbols Animal Gaur Bird Ruby Throated Yellow Bulbul Tree Matti Neighbouring States Karnataka, Maharashtra Sea Arabian Sea ▸ Goa is one of the favourite destination of tourists, with its famous beaches. Marmagao is the major port. ▸ It is the India's smallest state by area and the fourth smallest by population. ▸ It also has rich flora and fauna owing to its location on the Western Ghats range, which is classified as a biodiversity hotspot.
Capital Gandhinagar Date of Formation 1st May, 1960 Area 196024 sq km. State Symbols Animal Asiatic Lion Bird Great Flamingo Neighbouring States/UTs Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli Sea Pakistan Sea, Arabian Sea ▸ Gujarat is the main producer of groundnut and cotton. ▸ Kandla port, on the coast of Gulf of Kachchh lies in Gujarat only. ▸ It has longest coastline of 1600 km. ▸ Gujarat has the fastest growing economy in India. It is also one of the most industrialised states of India and has per capita GDP above the national average.
Capital Chandigarh Date of Formation 1st November, 1966 State Symbols Animal Black Buck Antelope Bird Black Francolin Tree Peepal Flower Lotus Neighbouring States UTS Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Rajasthan, Chandigarh (UT). ▸ Panipat is called the Weaver City for its handloom products. Haryana is a landlocked State in Northern India. ▸ Haryana is self-sufficient in food production and the second largest contributor to India's central pool of foodgrains. ▸ Yamuna Nagar district is the largest industrial town wholly within Haryana. It has Asia's largest paper mill belt and Asia's largest sugar mill. ▸ Yamuna Nagar has Asia's largest timber industry, an HPGCL thermal power plant, a hydro power plant and India's largest railway workshop. Haryana has lowest sex ratio (877).
Capital Shimla Date of Formation 25th January, 1971 State Symbols Animal Snow Leopard Bird Western Tragopan Tree Deodar Flower Pink Rhododendron Neighbouring States Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Uttarakhand. Neighbouring Country China ▸ Population is divided into five major groups the Gaddis, Kinners, Gujjars, Pangawals and Lahaulis. ▸ Himachal Pradesh is known to be abundant in natural beauty. ▸ The economy of the Himachal Pradesh is currently the third fastest growing economy in India. ▸ Apples are the important fruits produced. ▸ Excellent opportunities are available for horticulture and cash crops.
Capital Srinagar (summer) Jammu (winter) Date of Formation 26th October, 1947 State Symbols Animal Hangul Bird Black necked crane Tree Chinar Flower Lotus Neighbouring States Himachal Pradesh and Punjab Neighbouring Countries Pakistan, Afghanistan, China. ▸ Jammu and Kashmir is called as the Paradise on Earth. ▸ Apart from agriculture, people are involved in handicrafts, like carpet making, shawl making, wood carving etc. ▸ Ladakh, also known as Little Tibet, is renowned for its remote mountain beauty and Buddhist culture.
Capital Ranchi Date of Formation 15th November, 2000 State Symbols Animal Elephant Bird Koel Tree Sal Flower Palash Neighbouring States Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and West Bengal. ▸ Jharkhand is also known as the storehouse of minerals. This is because it accounts for 37.5% of country's coal reserves, 22% of the iron ore, 40% of its copper, 90% of its mica and huge deposits of bauxite, quartz and ceramics. ▸ The name 'Jharkhand' means The Land of Forests . ▸ Jharkhand has a concentration of some of the country's highly industrialised cities such as Jamshedpur, Ranchi, Bokaro Steel City and Dhanbad.
Capital Bengaluru Date of Formation 1st November, 1956 State Symbols Animal Elephant Bird Indian Roller Tree Sandal wood Flower Lotus Neighbouring States Kerala, Goa, Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu Sea Arabian Sea ▸ Bengaluru is the most famous IT destination. ▸ Karnataka is famous for its sandal soap and sandal wood oil. ▸ It stands first in the production of electronic equipments and raw silk. ▸ New Mangalore is the major port. ▸ Many of India's premier science and technology research centres, such as ISRO, Central Power Research Institute, BEL and the Central Food Technological Research Institute are headquartered in Karnataka.
Capital Thiruvananthapuram Date of Formation 1st November, 1956 State Symbols Animal Elephant Bird Great Hornbill Tree Coconut Flower Kanikonna Neighbouring States/UTs Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Lakshadweep ▸ Kerala has highest literacy rate (93.9%) and highest sex ratio (1084) in India. ▸ Kerala has the highest Human Development Index in India, higher than that of most developed countries. ▸ Kerala is very rich in cash crops especially spices. ▸ Calicut, Cochin are the major ports.
Capital Bhopal Date of Formation 1st November, 1956 State Symbols Animal Swamp Deer Bird Paradise Fly Catcher Neighbouring States Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Chhattisgarh . ▸ Madhya Pradesh, often called the heart of India, is a state in Central India. ▸ It is the second largest state by area and sixth largest state by population. It is primarily an agricultural state. ▸ Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve in Satpura range and Amarkantak Biosphere Reserves are two of the 18 biosphere reserves in India.
Capital Mumbai Date of Formation 1st May, 1960 State Symbols Animal Giant Squirrel Bird Green Imperial Pigeon Tree Mango Flower Jarul Neighbouring States Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Goa, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Chhattisgarh. Sea Arabian Sea ▸ It is the second most populous after Uttar Pradesh and third largest state by area. ▸ It is the industrial powerhouse of India. ▸ The world famous film industry Bollywood is in Maharashtra, located in the economic capital of India,Mumbai. ▸ Mumbai and Jawaharlal Nehru port are the major ports.
Capital Imphal Date of Formation 21st January, 1972 State Symbols Animal Sangai Bird Mrs. Hume's Pheasant Tree Uningthou Flower Siroy Lilly Neighbouring States Mizoram, Assam and Nagaland Neighbouring Country Myanmar ▸ It is known for its rich biodiversity having a number of rare plants, trees and wildlife. ▸ Agriculture is the major source of livelihood for the people. ▸ There are four type of forests found : 1. Tropical Semi-Evergreen 2. Dry Temperate Forest 3. Sub- Tropical Pine 4. Tropical Moist Deciduous
Capital Shillong Date of Formation 2nd April, 1970 State Symbols Animal Clouded Leopard Bird Hill Myna Tree Gamari Flower Lady Slipper Orchid Neighbouring State Assam Neighbouring Country Bangladesh ▸ Meghalaya is one of the seven sister states of India. ▸ The State of Meghalaya is also known as the Meghalaya plateau. It mainly consist of Archean rock formations. These rock formations contain rich deposits of valuable minerals like coal, limestone, uranium and sillimanite. ▸ More than 70% of the area is under forest. ▸ The wettest place in the world, Mawsynram (in Cherrapunji district) is in Meghalaya only.
Capital Aizwal Date of Formation 20th February, 1987 State Symbols Animal Serow (Saza) Bird Hume's Bar tailed Pheasant Tree Mesual Ferrea Flower Dancing girl (Aiting) Neighbouring States Tripura, Assam and Manipur Neighbouring Country Myanmar ▸ It is one of the seven sister states in North-Eastern India. ▸ Agriculture is the major occupation. ▸ Jhum or shifting cultivation is still prevalent. ▸ The biggest river in Mizoram is Chhimtuipi, also known as Kaladan. ▸ Phawngui Tlang also known as the Blue Mountain, situated in the South-Eastern part of the state, is the highest peak in Mizoram at 2210 m.
Capital Kohima Date of Formation 1st December, 1963 State Symbols Animal Mithun Bird Blyth's Tragopan Tree Alder Flower Rhododendron Neighbouring States Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam. Neighbouring Country Myanmar ▸ Agriculture is the most important economic activity in Nagaland, with more than 90% of the population employed in agriculture. ▸ Nagaland is rich in flora and fauna. About one-sixth of Nagaland is under the cover of tropical and sub-tropical evergreen forests-including palms, bamboo and rattan as well as timber and mahagony forest.
Capital Bhubaneshwar Date of Formation 1st November, 1956 State Symbols Animals Sambar Bird Blue Jay Tree Aswattha Flower Asoka Neighbouring States Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and West Bengal ▸ World's longest dam, Hirakud (on Mahanadi) is in Odisha only. ▸ Paradip is the major port in Odisha. ▸ Agriculture based economy, rice is the main crop. The Chilika lake is brackish water lagoon located in the Southern part of the Odisha coastal plains.
Capital Chandigarh Date of Formation 26th January, 1950 State Symbols Animal Blackbuck Bird Eastern Goshawk Tree Sheesham Neighbouring States Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan Neighbouring Country Pakistan ▸ Agriculture is the largest occupation in Punjab; it is the largest single provider of Wheat to India. ▸ Per hectare yield is maximum in Punjab. ▸ Bhakra dam (on Sutlej) is the highest dam of India. ▸ Punjab is the only state in India with a majority Sikh population. ▸ Various small-scale industries are operational in Punjab such as bicycle parts, sewing machine, hand tools and machine tools etc.
Capital Jaipur Date of Formation 1st November, 1956 State Symbols Animal Chinkara Bird Great Indian Bustard Tree Khejari Flower Rohida Neighbouring States Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana and Punjab. Neighbouring Country Pakistan ▸ It is the largest state of India in terms of area. Western Rajasthan is a desert region (Thar) deserts. ▸ Zinc, silver, lead, salt are found in abundance.
Capital Gangtok Date Formation 16th May, 1975 State Symbols Animal Red Panda Bird Blood Pheasant Tree Rhododendron Niveum Flower Dendrobium Nobile Orchid Neighbouring State West Bengal Neighbouring Countries China, Nepal and Bhutan ▸ It is the least populous state in India and the second smallest in area after Goa. ▸ It is a landlocked Indian state located in the Himalayan mountains. ▸ Sikkim is the only state in India with an ethnic Nepali majority.
Capital Chennai Date of Formations 26th January, 1950 State Symbols Animals Nilgiri Tahr Bird Emerald Dove Tree Palmera Palm Flower Kandhal Neighbouring States Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Puducherry (UT) Sea Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean Neighbouring Country Sri Lanka ▸ Tamil Nadu is home to many natural resources, Hindu temples of Dravidian architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, multi-religious pilgrim sites and UNESCO world heritage site. Its economy depends largely on agriculture. ▸ Chennai, Tuticorin and Ennore are the major ports in the State of Tamil Nadu. ▸ Major industries in Tamil Nadu are cotton textiles, chemical fertilizers, paper and its products, diesel engine, iron and steel, railway wagons and coaches etc.
Capital Hyderabad Date of Formation 2nd June, 2014 State Symbols Animal Deer Bird Indian Roller Tree Jammi Flower Thangedu Neighbouring States Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. ▸ Two major Peninsular rivers; the Godavari and the Krishna drains the states. About two-third catchment area of both rivers lies in Telangana. ▸ Important hub of art and culture as many historical places, forts, temples are situated. ▸ Most of the population is involved in agriculture as fertile land for agriculture is available.
Capital Agartala Date of Formation 21st January, 1972 Area 10491 × 69 sq km State Symbols Animal Phayre's Langur Bird Green Imperial Pigeon Tree Agar Flower Nageshwar Neighbouring States Assam and Mizoram Neighbouring Country Bangladesh ▸ It is the third smallest state of India (area-wise). ▸ It is an agriculture based state. ▸ Tripura is a landlocked state in North-Eastern India.
Capital Dehradun Date of Formation 9th November, 2000 State Symbols Animals Musk Deer, Bird Himalayan Monal Tree Burans Flower Brahm Kamal Neighbouring States Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh Neighbouring Countries China and Nepal ▸ It has tremendous potential for hydel power. The biggest project is the Tehri Dam Project on Bhagirathi river. ▸ Uttarakhand is home to several important educational institutions, including the oldest engineering colleges in Asia, the Indian Institute of Technology at Roorkee and Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology in Pantnagar. ▸ Rishikesh is widely considered as the yoga capital of the world.
Capital Lucknow Date of Formation 26th January, 1950 State Symbols Animal Swamp Deer Bird Sarus Crane Tree Ashok Flower Palash Neighbouring States Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Bihar. Neighbouring Country Nepal : Uttar Pradesh is the India's most populous state as well as the World's most populous sub-national entity (only 5 nations have more population than Uttar Pradesh) About 78% of the population depends on agriculture. ▸ Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of foodgrains, sugarcane and oilseed. ▸ Small Scale Cottage Industries are spread through-out in Uttar Pradesh. ▸ Kanpur is the largest economic hub of Uttar Pradesh. Kanpur is also the economic capital of Uttar Pradesh.
Capital Kolkata Date of Formation 1st November, 1956 State Symbols Animal Fishing Cat Bird White-throated King Fisher Tree Chatian Flower Shephali Neighbouring States Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, Sikkim and Assam Neighbouring Countries Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh. Sea Bay of Bengal. ▸ Kolkata – Haldia is the major port inWest Bengal. Agriculture is the mainstay of economy. It is the largest producer of rice in the country. ▸ West Bengal is noted for its cultural activities, with the state capital Kolkata earning the Sobriquet cultural capital of India.
Animal Nilgai Bird House sparrow Capital Delhi Date of Formation 1st February, 1992 Neighbouring States Haryana and Uttar Pradesh ▸ Delhi is the largest metropolis by area and the second largest metropolis by population in India. ▸ It is the eight largest metropolis in the world by population. ▸ Delhi is the largest commercial centre of Northern India and is the largest centre of small industries. ▸ Delhi has greater number of vehicles than the total vehicles of Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai put together.
Capital Port Blair Date of Formation 1st November, 1956 State Symbols Animal Dugong or Sea cow Bird Andaman wood Pigeon Tree Andaman Padauk ▸ Tourism and agriculture are the mainstay of economy. ▸ Andaman is a group of 204 islands, while Nicobar is a group of 19 islands. Out of these, only 36 islands in Andamans and 12 islands in Nicobars are inhabited. ▸ Mangrove forests are found in abundance in these islands. ▸ India's Southern-most point, Indira Point, is located, in Nicobar only.
Capital Chandigarh Date of Formation UT since 1966. State Symbols Animal Indian Grey Mongoose Bird Indian Grey Hornbill Flower Dhak Flower Tree Mango Tree Neighbouring States Punjab and Haryana ▸ Chandigarh is one of the most beautiful and well-planned places in India. It was designed by a French Architect, Le Corbusier. Chandigarh serves as a joint capital of Haryana and Punjab.
Capital Silvassa Date of Formation 11th August, 1961 Area 491 sq km Neighbouring States Gujarat, Maharashtra ▸ Forest cover about 40% of the total area. The rich bio-diversity makes it an ideal habitat for variety of birds and animals. This makes it a perfect spot for eco-tourism.
Capital Daman Date of Formation 30th May, 1987 Neighbouring State Gujarat ▸ Agriculture and fishing dominate the economies of Daman and Diu.Rice, Ragi (calsa called finger millet), pulses and beans are among the main crops of Daman.
Capital Kavaratti Date of Formation 1st November, 1956 State Symbols Animal Butterfly Fish Bird Noddy Tern Tree Bread Fruit Neighbouring States Kerala, Karnataka Sea Arabian Sea ▸ It is the smallest Union Territory of India. ▸ It is a group of 25 coral islands. ▸ Lakshadweep is India's largest producer of coconut.
Capital Puducherry Date of 7th January, 1963 Formation State Symbols Animal Squirrel Bird Koel Flower Cannon Ball Tree Vilva Tree ▸ In September, 2006, the territory changed its official name from Pondicherry to Puducherry, which means 'New Village' in the Tamil language. It is a former French colony, consisting of four district Puducherry, Karaikul, Yanam and Mahe.
Literacy Rate
Ranks
Percentage
1.
93.91
Lakshadweep
96.11
91.98
2.
92.28
96.02
Mizoram
89.40
3.
91.58
93.72
88.25
4.
87.75
92.81
83.15
5.
87.40
92.18
81.84
6.
Daman and Diu
87.07
Puducherry
92.12
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
7.
86.55
91.48
Chandigarh
81.38
8.
86.43
NCT of Delhi
91.03
81.22
9.
86.34
90.83
80.93
10.
86.27
90.54
79.59
11.
83.78
90.11
76.69
12.
82.91
89.82
76.60
13.
82.20
88.33
76.43
14.
80.33
87.29
75.48
15.
80.11
87.23
73.86
16.
79.85
86.81
73.78
17.
79.63
86.49
73.17
18.
79.31
Dadra and Nagar Haveli
86.46
71.34
19.
77.65
85.38
20.
77.08
83.29
70.73
21.
76.68
82.85
70.70
22.
76.64
82.67
68.13
23.
75.60
82.40
67.27
24.
81.48
66.77
25.
73.45
81.45
65.93
26.
73.18
80.53
64.36
27.
71.04
80.51
60.59
28.
70.63
79.24
60.02
29.
69.72
78.81
59.74
30.
68.74
78.45
59.57
31.
67.66
78.26
59.26
32.
67.63
77.17
58.01
33.
67.06
75.56
56.21
34.
66.95
78.69
53.33
35.
63.82
73.39
52.66
National Average
74.04%
82.14%
65.46%
Sex Ratio
Child Sex Ratio
Ratio
1084
971
1038
970
996
Andaman and Nicobar Island
966
992
965
991
964
987
986
959
978
957
975
953
974
950
968
946
944
963
943
961
954
947
934
933
931
924
920
928
912
938
909
918
908
916
906
899
893
886
889
883
878
877
867
866
818
859
775
846
618
830
940
914
▸ Ecology is a science, in which study of organism is undertaken in relation to their environment. This science developed in response to the increasing awareness of inter- relationships between plants, animals and their physical habitats. ▸ The term ecosystem was first used by AG Tansley in 1935, who defined ecosystem as a particular category of physical system, consisting of organisms and inorganic components in a relatively stable equilibrium open and of various sizes and kinds.
▸ Abiotic Part is the non-living component, e.g. air, water, soil, suspended particulate matter etc. ▸ Biotic Part includes plants, animals and micro-organism. ▸ The living organism in an ecosystem can be divided into three categories Producers ▸ Producers are organisms that can make organic energy resources from abiotic components of the environment. They produce their food themselves. Consumers ▸ Consumers are those organisms that gather energy by consuming organic material from other organisms. Primary consumers are those organisms, who consume mainly producers, primary consumers are also known as Herbivores. ▸ Secondary consumers are those organisms, who consume mainly primary consumers. Tertiary consumers are organisms that consume secondary consumers. Tertiary consumers are carnivores. Omnivores feed on both producers and other consumers. ▸ Detritovores consume detritus (dead). Decomposers ▸ Decomposers are organisms that break down dead or decaying organisms. Decomposers are heterotrophic meaning that they use organic substrates to get their energy, carbon and nutrients for growth and development e.g. bacteria and fungi.
The main functions of an ecosystem are as follows: (i) Materials or nutrient cycle (ii) Biological or ecological regulation ▸ Foodchain The flow of energy from of one organism to another in a sequence of food transfer is known as a foodchain. A simple foodchain is like the following Grass→Insect→Frogs→Snake→Hawk ▸ Food Web A network of foodchains or feeding relationships, by which energy and nutrients are passed on from one specie of living organism to another is called food web. ▸ Trophic Levels Trophic levels are the feeding position in a foodchain such as primary producers, herbivore, primary carnivore etc. Generally green plants form the first trophic level, the producers, herbivores from the second trophic level, while carnivores and omnivores form the third and even the fourth trophic levels. ▸ Ecological Pyramid An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation designed to show the number of organisms, energy relationships and biomass of an ecosystem. They are also called Eltonian Pyramids after Charles Elton, who developed the concept of ecological pyramids, producer organisms (usually green plants) from the base of the pyramid, with succeeding levels above representing the different tropic levels. ▸ Succeeding levels in the pyramid represent the dependence of the organisms at a given level on the organisms at lower level. ▸ Pyramid of Biomass Biomass is renewable organic (living) material. A pyramid of biomass is a representation of the amount of energy contained in biomass at different trophic levels for a particular time. ▸ It is measured in grams per meter or calories per meter. This demonstrates the amount of matter lost between trophic levels. ▸ Pyramid of Energy The pyramid of energy represents the total amount of energy consumed by each trophic level.
▸ An energy pyramid is always upright as the total amount of energy available for utilisation in the layers above is less than the energy available in the lower levels. ▸ Biome Biome is a large natural ecosystem, wherein we study the total assemblage of plant and animal communities. Biosphere is the largest ecosystem on the Earth, divided into biomes.
ImportantBiomes
Physical Characteristics
Animals
Tundra
Two seasons, dry and frozen desertsWinter extreme cold and snowy Summer flooding caused by snow melt permafrost layer (permanently frozen about 3 m below ground. Location far North and far South towards the polar ice caps Average Temperature 10°C Rainfall now 25 cm/yrSnow 10-20 cm/yr
No trees, dominated by mosses and lichens and grasses some small shrubs.
Insect blooms, large hooved mammals (caribou, musk, ox), bears wolves, small rodents (lemmings) migrate during the breeding season
Boreal Forest
Long winter, short fall and spring, 2-3 months of summer, wetter seasons, heavy rain and snow.Location coniferous forest, far Northern and far Southern latitudes
Trees 5-10 m high, boreal forest conifers pine, spruce, bog plants (ferns and mosses)
Diverse array of migrants from the tropics with few resident species (moose, bear, lynx, fox, voles) large insect blooms.
TemperateDeciduousForest
Four seasonsRainfall 80-140 cm/yr
Complex levels of vegetation deciduous trees, loose leaves in fall
Diverse array of migrants from the tropics and resident species.
Savannah
Dry three seasonsRainfall 90-150 cm/yrLocation tropical to sub-tropical
Grasses, shrubs, trees short and (2m tall) clumped together (10 m tall)
Large ungulates, large predators
TemperateGrassland
Temperate and some subartic grassland (extreme Northern Prairies-steppes and some extreme Southern grasslands-Pampas of Argentina) Rainfall 25-70 cm/yr
Grasses
Large ungulates
Mediterranean
Mild wet winter followed by hot, dry, summer, many plants dependent on regular fires associated with ChaparralLocation near coastlines (California, Chile, Mediterranean)
Short trees and shrubs
Diversity of mammals, birds, insects etc that like dry habitats
Desert
Very dryRainfall less than 25 cm/yearLocation primarily equatorial but some reach into temperate regions
Cactus, sagebrush, creosote and shrubs
Small rodents, reptiles
TropicalRainforest
Very wet-heavy rainfall.Soil poor in nutrientsTemperature constant throughout the year (wet and dry seasons)
Large trees-broad- leaved evergreens, epiphytes, not much forest floor vegetation (little sunlight) canopy 30-40 m above ground
Highest diversity of animals
▸ Ecological Niche Organisms in ecosystem get evolved for particular task. This task or role, which an organism plays in ecosystem is called as ecological niche.
Environmental pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in our surroundings that have harmful effects on plants, animals and human beings. Pollutants Pollutants are substances, which cause pollution and they could be in any from solid, liquid or gaseous. ▸ A primary pollutant is an air pollution emitted directly from a source. ▸ A secondary pollution is not directly emitted as such, but forms, when other pollutants (primary pollutants) react in the atmosphere.
▸ Sulphur dioxide (SO) 2 , nitrogen oxides (NO) 2 , carbon monoxide (CO), chlorofluoro carbons (CFCs), carbon dioxide (CO) 2 , Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) and Ammonia (NH) 3 etc.
Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog, such as nitrogen dioxide. 2. Ground level ozone (O) 3 formed from N2 and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). 3. Peroxyacety l Nitrate (PAN) similarly formed from NO2 and VOCs.
It is the contamination of air by a variety of substances causing health problems and damaging our environment.
Some of the most common air pollutants are as follows. ▸ CarbonMonoxide (CO) is produced from incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal and wood. ▸ It is also produced in tabacco smoke. It slows our reflexes and makes us feel sleepy. ▸ Carbon Dioxide (CO) 2 is the principal greenhouse gas and is primarily responsible for the greenhouse effect. It can be formed from all types of common human activities, such as burning fuels and even breathing. ▸ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were generally used in great quantities in industry, for refrigeration and air-conditioning and in consumer products. ▸ Ozone (O) 3 gas occurs naturally in the upper atmosphere where it shields the Earth from the Sun's dangerous ultraviolet rays. When found at ground level, however, it's a pollutant. ▸ Nitrogen Oxide and Sulphur Dioxide are major contributors to smog and acid rain. These gases both react with volatile organic compounds to form smog, which can cause respiratory problems in humans. Acid rain can harm vegetation, change the chemistry of river and lake water by lowering the pH which is harmful to animal life and react with the marble statues and buildings to decompose them. Controls/Measures of Air Pollution ▸ Suitable fuel selection ▸ Modification in industrial processes ▸ Correct selection of manufacturing sites ▸ More efficient engines ▸ Awareness for using public transport so that air pollution is minimised Water Pollution ▸ It is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater). Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds. ▸ Biological Oxygen Demond (BOD) It is a measurement of amount of dissolved that is used by aerobic micro-organisms when decomposing organic matter in water. It is an important water quality parameter and is an indicator of organic pollution. Control/Measures of Water Pollution ▸ Mass social awareness should be generated. ▸ Ground water pollution can be eliminated by maintaining strict restrictions regarding waste disposal. ▸ Industrial effluents should be effectively recycled, before releasing in water. ▸ Government Initiatives National Water Policy, 2002, Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, establishment of pollution control boards, oil spill response centre etc are some government initiatives to control water pollution. Noise Pollution ▸ Noise can be taken as a group of loud, non-harmonious sounds or vibrations that are unpleasant and irritating to ear. Decibel is the standard for the measurement of noise. The zero on a decibel scale is at the threshold of hearing, the lowest sound pressure that can be heard, on the scale 20 db is whisper 40 db the noise in quiet office, 60 db is normal conversation, 80 db is the level at which sound becomes physically painful. Land Pollution ▸ It refers to degradation or destruction of Earth's surface and soil, directly or indirectly as a result of human activities. It explains any activity that lessens the quality or productivity of the land as an ideal place for agriculture, forestation, construction, etc. Causes of Land Pollution ▸ Deforestation and soil erosion. ▸ Agricultural Activities Use of highly toxic fertilisers and pesticides mining activities. ▸ Overcrowded Landfills Garbage which cannot be recycled become a part of the landfills. ▸ Industrialisation Creation of more waste by industries that needs to be disposed off. ▸ Nuclear Waste The left over radioactive material contains harmful and toxic chemicals that can affect human health. They are dumped beneath the Earth to avoid any casuality. ▸ Sewage Treatment Large amount of solid waste is leftover once the sewage has been treated. The leftover material is sent to landfill site which end up in polluting the environment. Solutions for Land Pollution ▸ Make people aware about the concept of reduce, recycle and reuse. ▸ Practicing organic farming which uses no chemical pesticides and fertilisers in agricultural activities. ▸ Avoid buying packages items as they will lead to garbage. ▸ No littering on ground and proper disposal of garbage. ▸ Buy bio-degradable products. ▸ Organic gardening and organic food. e-Waste It is a term used to cover almost all types of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE) that could enter into the waste stream. Although, e-waste is a general term, it can be considered to cover TVs, computers, mobile phones, white goods (e.g. fridges, washing machines, dryers etc) home entertainment and stereo systems, toys, toasters, kettles almost any households or business item with circuitry or electrical components with power or battery supply which are discarded. Radioactive Pollution ▸ It is the release of any radioactive material into the environment. Radioactive pollution can be a very dangerous because radiation mutates DNA, causing abnormal growth and possibly cancer and this radiation remains in the environment for years, slowly diminishing over time. Radioactive pollution is mainly caused by nuclear accidents, nuclear explosion, accident during production or use of radioactive materials. There are techniques used to manage this pollution, however, we are far from keeping our planet clean of radioactive pollution.
▸ Biodiversity refers to the variety within the living world. The term is commonly used to describe the number, variety and variability of living organisms. ▸ Often used as a synonym of Life on the Earth. It means genetic variation, species variation or ecosystem variation within an area, biome or planet. ▸ Biodiversity is often seen in the terms of three fundamental and hierarchically related levels of biological organisation. ▸ Genetic diversity represents the heritable variation within and between population of organisms. ▸ Species diversity refers to number of species in a site or habitat. ▸ Ecosystem diversity refers to diversity of different organisms at the ecosystem, habitat or community level. BiodiversityHotspots ▸ A biodiversity hotspot is a bio-geographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is under threat from humans. The concept of biodiversity hotspots was originated by Norman Myers. ▸ To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot on Myers 2000 edition of the Hotspot Map, a region must meet two strict criterias. It must contain at least 0.5% or 1500 species of vascular plants as endemics and it has to have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation. India has two biodiversity hotspots—Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas.
Conservation is planned management of natural resources to retain the balance in nature and retain the diversity. It emphasises on the wise use of natural resources by accepting the idea of sustainable development. Conservation biodiversity is important in following ways. Method of Conservation The method of conservation of biodiversity can be classified into two groups. In-Situ (On Site) Conservation includ protection of plants and animals within their natural habitats or in protected areas. Protected areas are land or sea dedicated to protect and maintain biodiversity. Examples are Biosphere Reserves, National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, etc. Ex-Situ (Off Site) Conservation of plants and animals outside their natural habitats. These include botanical gardens, zoos, gene banks of seed, tissue culture and cryopreservation. Threatened Species Threatened species are any species (including animals, plants, fungi, etc.) which are vulnerable to endangerment in the near future. Species that are threatened are sometimes characterised by the population dynamics measure of critical depensation, a mathematical measure of biomass related to population growth rate. This quantitative metric is one method of evaluating the degree of endangerment. IUCN The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is the foremost authority on threatened species, and treats threatened species not as a single category, but as a group of three categories, depending on the degree to which they are threatened : ▸ Vulnerable species : A vulnerable species is one which has been categorised by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as likely to become endangered unless the circumstances threating its survival and reproduction improve. ▸ Endangered species : An endangered species is a species which has been categorized as likely to become extinct. ▸ Critically endangered species : A critically endangered (CR) species is one which has been categorised by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild. It is the highest risk category assigned by the IUCN Red List for wild species. IUCN Red List The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data List), founded in 1964, is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biological species.
Climate change refers to long-term change in the earth's climate, especially a change due to an increase in average atmospheric temperature. Earth's climate is also changing. In the past, Earth's climate has gone through warmer and cooler periods, each lasting thousands of years.
Difference Between National Park, Sanctuary and Biosphere Reserve
National Park
Sanctuary
Biosphere Reserve
A reserved area for preservation of its natural vegetation, wildlife and natural beauty.
A reserved area for preservation of endangered species.
Multipurpose protected area to preserve genetic diversity in representative ecosystem.
Boundaries are fixed by legislation.
Boundaries are not sacrosanct.
Endangered Species of India
Birds
Great Indian Bustard, Forest Owlet, Vulture, Bengal Florican, Himalayan Quail, Siberian Crane
Mammals
Flying Squirrel, Red Panda, Pygmy Hog, Kondana Rat, Snow Leopard, Asiatic Lion, One-Horned Rhinoceros
Reptiles
Gharial, Hawksbill Turtle, River Terrapin, Sispara Day Gecko
Amphibians
Flying Frog, Tiger Toad
Wildlife Conservation in India
Project Hangul
1970
Project Gir
Project Tiger
Project Olive Riddey Turtles
Crocodile Breeding Scheme
Project Manipur Thamin
Project Rhino
Project Elephant
Project Red Panda
1996
Project Vulture
2006
Important Sanctuaries and National Parks
Achanakmar Sanctuary
Bandhavgarh National Park
Bandipur Sanctuary
Banerghatta National Park
Bhadra Sanctuary
Chandraprabha Sanctuary
Corbett National Park
Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming ▸ The greenhouse gases (sometimes abbreviated as GHG) in the atmosphere absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range. The process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect. The primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere are water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone. In the Solar System, the atmosphere of Venus, Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause greenhouse effects. ▸ GlobalWarming is the increase of Earth's average surface temperatue due to effect of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels or from deforestation. Kyoto Protocol ▸ The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), aimed at fighting global warming. The UNFCCC is an international environmental treaty with the goal of achieving the ''stabilisation of greehouse gas concentration in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system''. The protocol was initially adopted on 11th December, 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and entered to force on 16th February, 2005. Second commitment period of this protocol started in 2013 and will end in 2020. ▸ The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has predicted an average global rise in temperature of 1.4°C to 5.8°C between 1990 and 2100. If successfully and completely implemented, the Kyoto Protocol will reduce that increase by somewhere between 0.02°C and 0.28°C by the year 2050. Mission Included in Prime Minister's National Action Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC) ▸ National solar mission ▸ National mission for enhanced energy efficiency ▸ National mission on sustainable habitat ▸ National water mission ▸ National mission for sustaining the Himalayan ecosystem ▸ National mission for Green India Biosphere Reserves of India
Great Rann of Kachchh
Gulf of Mannar(UNESCO)
Coasts
Sundarbans (UNESCO)
Gangetic Delta
Cold Desert
Western Himalayas
Nanda Devi (UNESCO)
West Himalays
Nilgiri (UNESCO)
Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka
Western Ghats
Dehang-Dibang
East Himalayas
Pachmarhi (UNESCO)
Semi-Arid
Seshachalam Hills
Eastern Ghats
Simlipal (UNESCO)
Deccan Peninsula
Achanakamar Amarkantak (UNESCO)
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh
Maikala Range
Manas
Khangchendzonga (UNESCO)
Agasthyamala (UNESCO)
Kerala, Tamil Nadu
Biosphere Reserve (UNESCO)
Agasthyamala
—
Great Nicobar (UNESCO)
Islands
Nokrek (UNESCO)
Dibru-Saikhowa
Panna
Ken River
▸ National mission for sustainable agriculture ▸ National mission on strategic knowledge for climate change REDD ++ ▸ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) is an effort to create a financial value for the carbon stored in forests, offering incentives for developing countries to reduce emissions from forested lands and invest in low carbon paths to sustainable development. ▸ 'REDD+' goes beyond deforestation and forest degradation and includes the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks. ▸ The proper implementation of REDD+ will contribute to protection of biodiversity resilience of forest ecosystems and poverty reduction. Ozone Layer Depletion ▸ The ozone layer is located within the Stratosphere, about 24 km above the Earth's surface. ▸ The layer consist of ozone gas molecules that are formed as the sunlight reacts with oxygen. ▸ The ozone layer is very important as it protecs life on Earth by filtering the Sun's dangerous ultraviolet radiation. ▸ Due to increased pollution on Earth, chemicals such as Chloro Fluro Carbons (CFCs) are destroying this protective ozone layer, which could lead to increased health risks and damage agricultural and acquatic ecosystem. Montreal Protocol on Substances thatDeplete theOzone Layer ▸ It is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer from Chloro Fluoro Carbons (CFCs). ▸ The treaty was opened for signature on 16th September, 1987 and entered into force on 1st January, 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Bonn Climate Conference 2017 The UN Climate Change Conference, 2017 was held in November 2017 at Bonn, Germany. It was presided by Government of Fiji. Important Environmental Organisations
IUCN Gland
1948
World wide Fund for nature (WWF) Swizerland
Green Peace Amsterdam
1971
World conservation Monitoring centre Cambridge
Global Environmental Facility Washington
1991
Environment Related Important International Agreements/Conference
Convention on Migratory Species
Bonn (1979)
Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer
Vienna (1985)
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
Montreal (1987)
Convention on the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes
Basel (1989)
Earth Summit (UN Conference on Environment and Development)
Riode-Janeiro (1992)
Convention on Prior Informed Consent
Rotterdam (1998)
UN Conference on Sustainable Development
Riode-Janeiro (2012)
Nagoya Protocol on Genetic Resources
Nagoya (2010)
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD-CoP-11)
Hyderabad (2012)
UN Climate Change Conference (CoP-20)
Lima (2014)
Paris Climate Conference (CoP-21)
Paris (2015)
Bonn Climate Conference (CoP-23)
Bonn (2017)
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