UPSC GS Paper I: Medieval History, Maratha Empire, Shivaji, Administration, Peshwas

Must?Know (20–25 detailed bullets)

• Shivaji Bhonsle crowned himself Chhatrapati in 1674 at Raigad Fort, formalizing the Maratha Empire’s sovereignty; this coronation was conducted by Gaga Bhatt, a Brahmin scholar from Varanasi, to legitimize his Kshatriya status.
• Shivaji’s administration was based on the Ashta Pradhan council – eight ministers including Peshwa (finance and general administration), Amatya (revenue), and Senapati (military commander); each reported directly to the Chhatrapati.
• The Maratha revenue system under Shivaji was influenced by Malik Ambar’s practices in Ahmadnagar and Akbar’s zabt system; land revenue was typically 30–40% of the produce, known as Raja Sava.
• Shivaji introduced Ryotwari settlement, dealing directly with cultivators to prevent exploitation by intermediaries; this contrasted with Mughal zamindari practices.
• The Maratha navy, established by Shivaji, included forts at Sindhudurg and Vijaydurg; he was the first Indian ruler to recognize the strategic importance of naval power on the western coast.
• Shivaji’s guerrilla warfare tactics (Ganimi Kava) were effective against the larger Mughal and Adilshahi armies; used terrain of the Western Ghats to advantage during conflicts with Afzal Khan (1659) and Shaista Khan (1663).
• Treaty of Purandar (1665) – Shivaji ceded 23 forts to Jai Singh I (Mughal commander) and agreed to become a vassal; in return, he was granted mansab of 5,000 and allowed to retain control over Swarajya.
• Shivaji’s escape from Agra in 1666 – after being detained by Aurangzeb, he feigned illness and escaped disguised as a servant, reaffirming his defiance of Mughal authority.
• Shivaji died in 1680; succeeded by his son Sambhaji, who continued resistance against Mughals until captured and executed by Aurangzeb in 1689.
• Sambhaji was succeeded by Rajaram, and after his death in 1700, by his widow Tarabai, who led the Maratha resistance from 1700–1707 during the Mughal-Maratha War.
• The Marathas adopted a decentralized military structure with Sardars (commanders) maintaining their own troops; this allowed rapid expansion but later contributed to fragmentation under Peshwas.
• Balaji Vishwanath became Peshwa in 1713; secured chauth (25% of revenue) and sardeshmukhi (10% additional levy) rights over six Mughal provinces (Deccan, Gujarat, Malwa, etc.) via Treaty of 1719 with Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar.
• Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were not taxes but tributes extracted from regions outside direct Maratha control; failure to pay often led to Maratha raids.
• Baji Rao I (Peshwa 1720–1740) famously declared “Let us strike at the trunk of the withering tree (Mughal Empire), the branches will fall of themselves”; expanded Maratha influence into Malwa, Gujarat, and Bundelkhand.
• Baji Rao I won the Battle of Palkhed (1728) against the Nizam of Hyderabad using mobile cavalry tactics, without a major pitched battle, forcing the Nizam to recognize Maratha rights.
• Third Battle of Panipat (1761) – Marathas under Sadashivrao Bhau defeated by Afghan forces led by Ahmad Shah Abdali; resulted in heavy loss of Maratha leadership and temporarily halted northward expansion.
• The Peshwa became hereditary after Balaji Vishwanath; office shifted from advisory to executive supremacy, especially under Baji Rao I and Balaji Baji Rao (Nanasaheb).
• After Panipat, Madhavrao I (Peshwa 1761–1772) restored Maratha power in North India and reorganized administration; his early death weakened central authority.
• The Maratha Confederacy by late 18th century included semi-autonomous states: Gaekwads (Baroda), Holkars (Indore), Scindias (Gwalior), and Bhonsles (Nagpur); each maintained independent armies and diplomacy.
• The Treaty of Salbai (1782) ended the First Anglo-Maratha War; British recognized Mahadji Shinde’s control over North India and returned Surat; marked temporary Maratha resurgence.
• The Maratha defeat in the Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805) – key battles at Assaye and Argaon (won by Arthur Wellesley) led to British dominance over Delhi and large parts of Central India.
• The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818) resulted in the defeat of Peshwa Baji Rao II; he surrendered and was pensioned off to Bithur (near Kanpur), ending the Peshwa rule.
• The Maratha forts, such as Raigad, Sinhagad, and Pratapgad, were strategically located on hilltops with sophisticated water storage and defense systems; many were rebuilt or captured by Shivaji from Adilshahi rulers.
• Maratha administration used karkhanis (departments) for revenue, justice, and military; local governance relied on Deshmukhs and Deshpandes, though Shivaji curbed their powers to prevent corruption.
• The Saranjam system granted land to military officials in return for maintaining troops; similar to Mughal jagirdari, but with greater accountability under early Marathas.

Difficulty Level

Intermediate – requires understanding of chronology, administrative structure, and military-diplomatic shifts; questions often combine facts from different phases (Shivaji vs. Peshwa era).

Common UPSC Traps (3–5 factual traps)

Trap: Shivaji founded the Maratha Empire after defeating the Mughals – Fact: Shivaji’s major early conflicts were with the Adilshahi Sultanate of Bijapur; his major Mughal confrontation began with Shaista Khan and Jai Singh, not initial foundation.
Trap: Peshwa was always the head of the Maratha state – Fact: Peshwa was prime minister under Chhatrapati; only after Shahu’s reign (early 18th century) did Peshwas become de facto rulers.
Trap: Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were land revenue taxes collected within Maratha territory – Fact: These were tribute demands on non-Maratha territories; chauth was 25% of revenue as protection money, sardeshmukhi an additional 10% as hereditary claim.
Trap: The Third Battle of Panipat was fought between Marathas and Mughals – Fact: It was fought between Marathas and Afghan forces led by Ahmad Shah Abdali, with support from Rohillas and Shuja-ud-Daula; Mughal Empire was a nominal participant.

Practice MCQs (5–7 questions)

Question: The Treaty of Purandar (1665) was signed between Shivaji and which Mughal commander?
A) Aurangzeb
B) Shaista Khan
C) Jai Singh I
D) Raja Jaswant Singh
Answer: C
Explanation: Jai Singh I, sent by Aurangzeb, negotiated the treaty after capturing several Maratha forts.
Why others fail: Shaista Khan was defeated by Shivaji in Pune in 1663 but was not involved in the treaty.

Question: Which of the following was a key feature of Shivaji’s military administration?
A) Permanent standing army paid in cash
B) Heavy reliance on Mughal-trained artillery experts
C) Use of naval power to control Konkan coast
D) Recruitment exclusively from Maratha caste
Answer: C
Explanation: Shivaji established a navy and built coastal forts like Sindhudurg to counter European and Siddi naval influence.
Why others fail: Shivaji’s army was largely cavalry-based and recruited from diverse communities; standing army was not fully cash-paid.

Question: The position of Peshwa became hereditary during the reign of:
A) Shivaji
B) Sambhaji
C) Rajaram
D) Shahu
Answer: D
Explanation: Shahu appointed Balaji Vishwanath as Peshwa in 1713, and the office became hereditary from his lineage.
Why others fail: Shivaji’s Peshwas were not hereditary; the shift occurred after Shahu’s release by Aurangzeb in 1707.

Question: The Battle of Palkhed in 1728 is significant because it demonstrated:
A) Superior Mughal artillery
B) Maratha use of guerrilla warfare against the Nizam
C) British intervention in Deccan politics
D) Defeat of the Portuguese in Western India
Answer: B
Explanation: Baji Rao I used rapid movement and encirclement to isolate and force the Nizam into negotiation without a major battle.
Why others fail: The British were not involved; the conflict was between Marathas and Hyderabad.

Question: Which Maratha leader played a crucial role in restoring Maratha power after the Third Battle of Panipat?
A) Baji Rao II
B) Madhavrao I
C) Mahadji Shinde
D) Ahilyabai Holkar
Answer: B
Explanation: Madhavrao I (1761–1772) reorganized the administration and led successful campaigns in North India.
Why others fail: Mahadji Shinde rose later; Baji Rao II was defeated by the British.

Question: The Treaty of Salbai (1782) is associated with the end of:
A) First Anglo-Maratha War
B) Second Anglo-Maratha War
C) Third Anglo-Maratha War
D) Maratha conflict with Tipu Sultan
Answer: A
Explanation: Treaty of Salbai ended the First Anglo-Maratha War; British recognized Raghunathrao’s pension and returned territories.
Why others fail: Second and Third Wars occurred later, in 1803 and 1817 respectively.

Question: Which of the following was NOT a member of the Ashta Pradhan council under Shivaji?
A) Nyayadhish (Chief Justice)
B) Sachiv (Correspondence)
C) Panditrao (Religious Head)
D) Sumant (Foreign Minister)
Answer: A
Explanation: The Ashta Pradhan included Peshwa, Amatya, Mantri (Sachiv), Senapati, Sumant, Nyayadhish was not part of the original eight; judicial functions were separate.
Why others fail: Nyayadhish existed in administration but not as a formal member of the council.

Last?Minute Revision (20–25 one?liners)

• Shivaji crowned Chhatrapati in 1674 at Raigad.
• Treaty of Purandar: 1665, Shivaji and Jai Singh I.
• Escape from Agra: 1666.
• Shivaji died in 1680; succeeded by Sambhaji.
• Sambhaji executed by Aurangzeb in 1689.
• Balaji Vishwanath became Peshwa in 1713.
• Treaty of 1719: Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar granted chauth and sardeshmukhi rights.
• Baji Rao I: Peshwa from 1720–1740.
• Battle of Palkhed: 1728, Marathas vs. Nizam.
• Third Battle of Panipat: 1761, Marathas vs. Ahmad Shah Abdali.
• Madhavrao I restored Maratha power after Panipat (1761–1772).
• Treaty of Salbai: 1782, ended First Anglo-Maratha War.
• Second Anglo-Maratha War: 1803–1805.
• Third Anglo-Maratha War: 1817–1818, ended Peshwa rule.
• Baji Rao II defeated, pensioned to Bithur.
• Ashta Pradhan: Eight ministers in Shivaji’s council.
• Chauth: 25% revenue as protection money.
• Sardeshmukhi: 10% additional levy on non-Maratha areas.
• Ryotwari system: Direct settlement with cultivators.
• Ganimi Kava: Shivaji’s guerrilla warfare.
• Sindhudurg Fort: Built by Shivaji, 1664–1667.
• Pratapgad Fort: Site of Afzal Khan’s defeat, 1659.
• Maratha Confederacy: Gaekwads, Holkars, Scindias, Bhonsles, Peshwas.
• Shahu: Released by Aurangzeb in 1707, became Chhatrapati.
• verify from standard source: Exact percentage of land revenue under Shivaji varied by region.