UPSC Optional: History, Medieval India, Sultanate, Mughal, Regional Kingdoms, Economic and Social

Must?Know

• Delhi Sultanate economy relied on land revenue (kharaj) at 1/3 to 1/2 of produce; Alauddin Khalji fixed taxes in cash to fund market reforms (1300s).
• Iqta system under Delhi Sultans assigned revenue collection rights to officials; evolved into hereditary under later Sultans, weakening central control.
• Alauddin Khalji’s market control (1301–1311): fixed prices for grains, cloth, horses; enforced via Diwan-i-Riyasat and spies; collapsed after his death.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s token currency (1329): brass coins equivalent to silver; failed due to forgery and lack of state monopoly, withdrawn by 1333.
• Vijayanagara Empire under Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529) taxed trade heavily; controlled spice and textile exports via ports like Goa and Bhatkal.
• Mughal land revenue system under Akbar: Todar Mal’s bandobast included zabt system, dahsala assessment (average yield over 10 years), and patta (receipt).
• Ain-i-Dahsala (1580): standardized crop rates and revenue in silver; applied in provinces like Agra, Awadh, and Lahore.
• Mughal mansabdari system: rank (mansab) denoted both military and civil status; zat (personal rank), sawar (cavalry obligation); reformed by Akbar in 1575.
• Jizya tax reimposed by Aurangzeb in 1679 on non-Muslims; abolished by Akbar in 1564; contributed to Rajput and Maratha discontent.
• Zamindars in Mughal India were hereditary revenue collectors, not landowners; recognized in Ain-i-Akbari as intermediaries with rights to retain 10–25%.
• Portuguese introduced cartaz system (1500s) in Indian Ocean: required ships to carry passes; disrupted traditional trade networks in western India.
• Mughal urban centers: Agra had 500,000+ population by 1600; Lahore and Delhi followed; growth linked to imperial patronage and trade.
• Sur Empire under Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545): introduced tri-metal coinage (rupee, dam, mohur); standardized weights and measures.
• Sher Shah’s Grand Trunk Road (from Sonargaon to Peshawar) boosted trade; included sarais (inns) every 2 miles for merchants.
• Bhakti movement challenged caste: Kabir (15th c.) rejected idolatry and ritual; Nanak (1469–1539) founded Sikhism, emphasizing equality and langar.
• Sufi orders (Chishti, Suhrawardi) promoted social integration; Chishti khanqahs in Ajmer and Delhi served as centers of music and charity.
• Mughal agrarian crisis (1690s–1707): excessive revenue demands, famine in Deccan (1630–32), and peasant revolts (e.g., Jat uprisings under Gokula, 1669).
• Maratha economy under Shivaji (1642–1680): levied chauth (25% of revenue) and sardeshmukhi (10% extra) from six Deccan provinces.
• Bengal under Murshid Quli Khan (1717–1725): shifted capital to Murshidabad; implemented revenue farming (ijara), increasing peasant exploitation.
• Tipu Sultan’s economic reforms (1782–1799): state monopolies on sandalwood, spices, and sericulture; introduced Mysore calendar in 1783.
• Ahom Kingdom (Assam, 1228–1826): paik system (compulsory labor); controlled Brahmaputra valley trade; resisted Mughals in Battle of Itakhuli (1682).
• Golkonda diamond trade (16th–17th c.): Kollur mines supplied Golconda diamonds to global markets; pearls from Tuticorin trade.
• Mughal artisans worked in karkhanas (workshops); specialized in textiles (muslin from Dhaka), carpets (Agra), and metalwork (Bidri).
• Portuguese captured Goa in 1510 under Afonso de Albuquerque; established first European colonial capital in India.
• Dutch established trading posts at Pulicat (1609) and Nagapattinam (1658); focused on Coromandel textiles and spice trade.

Difficulty Level

Intermediate – requires integration of socio-economic patterns across dynasties and regions, with precise data on policies and outcomes.

Common UPSC Traps

Trap: Alauddin Khalji’s market reforms included fixing wages for all laborers – Fact: Wages were fixed only for skilled artisans and soldiers, not agricultural laborers; recorded in Barani’s Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi.
Trap: Todar Mal’s revenue system was uniformly applied across the entire Mughal Empire – Fact: Zabt system applied only to northern provinces; Bengal and Deccan used nasaq (estimated revenue) or local systems.
Trap: Jizya was introduced by Aurangzeb for the first time – Fact: Jizya existed since Delhi Sultanate; Akbar abolished it in 1564, Aurangzeb reimposed it in 1679.
Trap: Zamindars owned land under Mughal rule – Fact: Zamindars had revenue collection rights, not proprietary rights; land belonged to the state (crown), per Ain-i-Akbari.
Trap: The Bhakti movement uniformly opposed the caste system – Fact: Some Bhakti saints (e.g., Ramanuja) accepted caste hierarchy; radical rejection came from Kabir, Nanak, and Basavanna.

Practice MCQs

Question: Which of the following was a feature of Sher Shah Suri’s administrative reforms?
A) Introduction of the mansabdari system
B) Construction of the Grand Trunk Road from Lahore to Sonargaon
C) Abolition of jizya for non-Muslims
D) Establishment of karkhanas for textile production
Answer: B
Explanation: Sher Shah Suri constructed the Grand Trunk Road from Sonargaon (Bengal) to Peshawar, improving trade and communication.
Why others fail: A is incorrect because mansabdari was introduced by Akbar, not Sher Shah.

Question: The term 'chauth' during the Maratha rule referred to:
A) A land revenue system based on crop sharing
B) A tax of 25% collected from territories outside Maratha kingdom
C) A military levy imposed on zamindars
D) A religious tax for temple maintenance
Answer: B
Explanation: Chauth was a 25% levy on revenue from regions under Maratha influence but not directly administered.
Why others fail: A describes batai system; chauth was not a land revenue system but a protection tax.

Question: Which Sultan introduced token currency made of brass and copper in the 14th century?
A) Iltutmish
B) Alauddin Khalji
C) Muhammad bin Tughlaq
D) Firuz Shah Tughlaq
Answer: C
Explanation: Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced token currency in 1329, with copper/brass coins equal in value to silver tankas.
Why others fail: Alauddin introduced market controls, but not token currency; Iltutmish introduced silver tanka and copper jital.

Question: The paik system was a form of:
A) Land revenue assessment in Vijayanagara
B) Forced labor in the Ahom Kingdom
C) Military recruitment in the Bahmani Sultanate
D) Artisan organization in Mughal karkhanas
Answer: B
Explanation: The Ahom Kingdom in Assam used the paik system, where adult males rendered compulsory service to the state.
Why others fail: Paik is specific to Ahom administration; not related to Vijayanagara or Mughal systems.

Question: Which of the following correctly matches a regional kingdom with its economic feature?
A) Mysore – State monopoly on sandalwood and spices under Tipu Sultan
B) Bengal – Introduction of zabt system by Murshid Quli Khan
C) Vijayanagara – Abolition of trade taxes to promote commerce
D) Golkonda – Decline of diamond mining under Qutb Shahi rule
Answer: A
Explanation: Tipu Sultan established state monopolies on key commodities including sandalwood, spices, and silk.
Why others fail: Murshid Quli Khan used ijara (revenue farming), not zabt; Vijayanagara taxed trade heavily.

Question: The term 'kharaj' in the Delhi Sultanate referred to:
A) A tax on irrigation
B) A land tax on non-Muslims
C) A customs duty on imports
D) A religious endowment for mosques
Answer: B
Explanation: Kharaj was an Islamic land tax levied on non-Muslim cultivators, typically at 1/3 to 1/2 of produce.
Why others fail: Ushr was a 10% tax on Muslims; kharaj was specifically for non-Muslims.

Question: Which of the following was NOT a feature of Alauddin Khalji’s market control policy?
A) Fixation of prices for grains and cloth
B) Appointment of market officers (shahna)
C) Payment of soldiers in kind
D) Establishment of government granaries
Answer: C
Explanation: Soldiers were paid in cash, not kind, to support monetized economy under Alauddin’s reforms.
Why others fail: C is incorrect because Alauddin emphasized cash salaries; others were key elements of market regulation.

Last?Minute Revision

• 1296: Alauddin Khalji’s raid on Devagiri, funded market reforms.
• 1301: Alauddin Khalji’s price control measures implemented.
• 1329: Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s token currency introduced.
• 1564: Akbar abolished jizya.
• 1575: Akbar reformed mansabdari system.
• 1580: Todar Mal’s dahsala system formalized in Ain-i-Dahsala.
• 1609: Dutch established factory at Pulicat.
• 1630–32: Deccan famine under Shah Jahan.
• 1669: Jat rebellion led by Gokula against Aurangzeb.
• 1679: Aurangzeb reimposed jizya.
• 1682: Ahom victory over Mughals at Battle of Itakhuli.
• 1717: Farrukhsiyar’s farman granted British trade rights in Bengal.
• 1783: Tipu Sultan introduced Mysore calendar.
• Sher Shah Suri’s currency: silver rupiya (60 ratti), precursor to modern rupee.
• Vijayanagara capital: Hampi; captured in 1565 at Battle of Talikota.
• Ain-i-Akbari: part of Akbar Nama, contains revenue and administrative data.
• Chishti Sufi center: Ajmer Sharif (Mu'in al-Din Chishti d. 1236).
• Iqta: not land grant, but revenue assignment; non-transferable under early Sultans.
• Dahsala: average of 10-year yield; applied in doab regions.
• Portuguese cartaz: naval pass system enforced from 1500s.
• Sur Empire: 1540–1555; Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun at Bilgram (1540).
• Bhakti saint Basavanna: 12th c. Karnataka; Lingayat movement, opposed caste.
• Gokula: Jat leader, led rebellion in Mathura region, executed 1670.
• Murshid Quli Khan: first Nawab of Bengal, shifted capital to Murshidabad.
• Kollur mines: primary source of Golconda diamonds, operated under Qutb Shahis.